Focal Point

<p>In <a title="Game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory">game theory</a>, a <strong>focal point</strong> (also called <strong>Schelling point</strong>) is a solution that people will tend to use in the absence of communication, because it seems natural, special, or relevant to them. The concept was introduced by the <a title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize</a>-winning American economist <a title="Thomas Schelling" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Schelling">Thomas Schelling</a> in his book <em>The Strategy of Conflict</em> (1960).<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-674-84031-3_1-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_note-isbn0-674-84031-3-1">[1]</a></sup> In this book (at p. 57), Schelling describes "focal point[s] for each person’s expectation of what the other expects him to expect to be expected to do". This type of focal point later was named after Schelling. He further explains that such points are highly useful in negotiations, because we cannot completely trust our negotiating partners' words.</p>

<h2>Contents</h2>

<ul>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#Examples"><span class="tocnumber">1Examples</span></a>

<ul>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#In_coordination_games"><span class="tocnumber">1.1In</span><span class="toctext"> coordination games</span></a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#Schelling's_example"><span class="tocnumber">1.2Schelling's</span><span class="toctext"> example</span></a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#Real-Life_application"><span class="tocnumber">1.3Real-Life</span><span class="toctext"> application</span></a></li>

</ul>

</li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#Criticism"><span class="tocnumber">2Criticism</span></a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#References"><span class="tocnumber">4References</span></a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">5External</span><span class="toctext"> links</span></a></li>

</ul>

</div>

<h2><span id="Examples" class="mw-headline">Examples</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Examples" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_point_(game_theory)&action=edit&section=1">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>

<h3><span id="In_coordination_games" class="mw-headline">In coordination games</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: In coordination games" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_point_(game_theory)&action=edit&section=2">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>

<p>Consider a simple example: two people unable to communicate with each other are each shown a panel of four squares and asked to select one; if and only if they both select the <em>same</em> one, they will each receive a prize. Three of the squares are blue and one is red. Assuming they each know nothing about the other player, but that they each do want to win the prize, then they will, reasonably, <em>both</em> choose the red square.</p>

coordination game example</div>

</div>

<p>Of course, the red square is not in a sense a <em>better</em> square; they could win by both choosing any square and in this sense, all squares are technically a <a title="Nash equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash_equilibrium">Nash equilibrium</a>. The red square is the "right" square to select only if a player can be sure that the other player has selected it; but by hypothesis neither can. However, it is the most salient and notable square, so—lacking any other one—most people will choose it, and this will in fact (often) work.</p>

<h3><span id="Schelling.27s_example"></span><span id="Schelling's_example" class="mw-headline">Schelling's example</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Schelling's example" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_point_(game_theory)&action=edit&section=3">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>

<p>Schelling himself illustrated this concept with the following problem: "Tomorrow you have to meet a stranger in NYC. Where and when do you meet them?" This is a <a title="Coordination game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_game">coordination game</a>, where any place and time in the city could be an equilibrium solution. Schelling asked a group of students this question, and found the most common answer was "noon at (the information booth at) <a title="Grand Central Terminal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal">Grand Central Terminal</a>". There is nothing that makes Grand Central Terminal a location with a higher payoff (you could just as easily meet someone at a bar or the public library reading room), but its tradition as a meeting place raises its salience and therefore makes it a natural "focal point".<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-674-84031-3_1-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_note-isbn0-674-84031-3-1">[1]</a></sup></p>

<h3><span id="Real-Life_application" class="mw-headline">Real-Life application</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Real-Life application" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_point_(game_theory)&action=edit&section=4">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>

<p>Focal points can also have real-life applications. For example, imagine two bicycles headed towards each other and in danger of crashing. Avoiding collision becomes a coordination game where both player's winning choice depends on the other player's choice. Each player in this case has the choice to go straight, swerve to the left or swerve to the right. Both players want to avoid crashing, but neither knows what the other will do. <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></p>

Collision game example</div>

</div>

<p>In this case, the decision to swerve Right can serve as a focal point which leads to the winning Right-Right outcome. It seems a natural focal point in places using <a title="Left- and right-hand traffic" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic">right-hand traffic</a>.</p>

<h2><span id="Criticism" class="mw-headline">Criticism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Criticism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_point_(game_theory)&action=edit&section=5">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>

<p>After Schelling wrote about it, a number of experimental investigations have been performed on the efficacy of focal point in coordination situations and research has generally validated it. A review by Isoni et al. looked at studies that used the Battle of the Sexes game that showed players’ preferences to more salient options such as Holm’s 2000 study which found that when this game is played between a male and a female player, the subjects are more likely to coordinate on an equilibrium whose payoffs were more favorable to the male. <sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></p>

<p>However, some studies have also demonstrated that the power of focal point can be greatly weakened by asymmetric payoff . In Crawford et al.’s 2008 study, subjects played coordination games in symmetric payoff and asymmetric payoff conditions. While 90% of subjects in the symmetry condition, in which the subjects would win $100 if they were able to coordinate regardless of what they coordinated on, were able to coordinate on the focal point, only 60% chose the more salient option in the slight asymmetry condition, in which the subjects would win $100 by coordinating on the salient option and $101 for the non-salient option. This effect would become more profound as the asymmetry in payoffs become more exaggerated. <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></p>

<ul>

<li><a title="Keynesian beauty contest" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynesian_beauty_contest">Keynesian beauty contest</a></li>

<li><a title="Game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory">Game Theory</a></li>

</ul>

<h2><span id="References" class="mw-headline">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: References" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_point_(game_theory)&action=edit&section=7">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>

<li id="cite_note-isbn0-674-84031-3-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_ref-isbn0-674-84031-3_1-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to:</span><sup><em><strong>a</strong></em></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point(game_theory)#cite_ref-isbn0-674-84031-3_1-1"><sup><em><strong>b</strong></em></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Schelling, Thomas C. (1960). <em>The strategy of conflict</em> (First ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-674-84031-3" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-84031-3">0-674-84031-3</a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-2"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://mindyourdecisions.com/blog/2008/04/01/focal-points-or-schelling-points-how-we-naturally-organize-in-games-of-coordination/" rel="nofollow">"Focal Points (or Schelling Points): How We Naturally Organize in Games of Coordination – Mind Your Decisions"</a>. <em>mindyourdecisions.com.</em><span class="reference-accessdate"> Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-12</span></span>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-3"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a class="external text" href="http://www.law.northwestern.edu/faculty/fulltime/nadler/focalpoint.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Testing the Focal Point Theory of Legal Compliance: The Effect of Third-Party Expression in an Experimental Hawk/Dove Game"</a> (PDF). 2005.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-4"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Mehta, Judith; Starmer, Chris; Sugden, Robert (1994-03-01). <a class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01079211" rel="nofollow">"Focal points in pure coordination games: An experimental investigation"</a>. <em>Theory and Decision</em>. <strong>36</strong> (2): 163–185. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01079211" rel="nofollow">10.1007/BF01079211</a>. <a title="International Standard Serial Number" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-5833" rel="nofollow">0040-5833</a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-5"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014292112001602" rel="nofollow">"Focal points in tacit bargaining problems: Experimental evidence"</a>. <em>European Economic Review</em>. <strong>59</strong>: 167–188. 2013-04-01. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.euroecorev.2012.12.005" rel="nofollow">10.1016/j.euroecorev.2012.12.005</a>. <a title="International Standard Serial Number" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0014-2921" rel="nofollow">0014-2921</a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-6"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0899825698906856" rel="nofollow">"Gender-Based Focal Points"</a>. <em>Games and Economic Behavior</em>. <strong>32</strong> (2): 292–314. 2000-08-01. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fgame.1998.0685" rel="nofollow">10.1006/game.1998.0685</a>. <a title="International Standard Serial Number" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0899-8256" rel="nofollow">0899-8256</a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-7"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014292112001602" rel="nofollow">"Focal points in tacit bargaining problems: Experimental evidence"</a>. <em>European Economic Review</em>. <strong>59</strong>: 167–188. 2013-04-01. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.euroecorev.2012.12.005" rel="nofollow">10.1016/j.euroecorev.2012.12.005</a>. <a title="International Standard Serial Number" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0014-2921" rel="nofollow">0014-2921</a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-8"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0899825615000688" rel="nofollow">"Stake size and the power of focal points in coordination games: Experimental evidence"</a>. <em>Games and Economic Behavior</em>. <strong>94</strong>: 191–199. 2015-11-01. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geb.2015.05.001" rel="nofollow">10.1016/j.geb.2015.05.001</a>. <a title="International Standard Serial Number" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0899-8256" rel="nofollow">0899-8256</a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_(game_theory)#cite_ref-9"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up</span>^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://econweb.ucsd.edu/_{vcrawfor/CrawfordGneezyRottenstreichAER08.pdf}" rel="nofollow">"The Power of Focal Points Is Limited: Even Minute Payoff Asymmetry May Yield Large Coordination Failures"</a> (PDF). 2008.</cite></span></li>

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<h2><span id="External_links" class="mw-headline">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: External links" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_point_(game_theory)&action=edit&section=8">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>

<ul>

<li><a class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/group/rec.puzzles/browse_thread/thread/230105249cc297bd?pli=1" rel="nofollow">Rare Entries Contests</a> (an example) and <a class="external text" href="http://physics.syr.edu/_{mjeng/Contests/mojocopy/mojo_all.html}" rel="nofollow">Common Entries Contests</a>, games of respectively avoiding and seeking out focal points</li>

<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2sT_zaofuuE" rel="nofollow">TED community experiment on focal / Schelling points</a></li>

</ul>

<tbody>

<tr>

<ul>

</ul>

</div>

<div id="Topics_in_game_theory">Topics in <a title="Game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory">game theory</a></div>

</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<th class="navbox-group" scope="row">Definitions</th>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_game">Cooperative game</a></li>

<li><a title="Determinacy" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinacy">Determinacy</a></li>

<li><a title="Escalation of commitment" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment">Escalation of commitment</a></li>

<li><a title="Extensive-form game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensive-form_game">Extensive-form game</a></li>

<li><a title="First-player and second-player win" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-player_and_second-player_win">First-player and second-player win</a></li>

<li><a title="Game complexity" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_complexity">Game complexity</a></li>

<li><a title="Graphical game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_game_theory">Graphical game</a></li>

<li><a title="Hierarchy of beliefs" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_beliefs">Hierarchy of beliefs</a></li>

<li><a title="Information set (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_set_(game_theory)">Information set</a></li>

<li><a title="Normal-form game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal-form_game">Normal-form game</a></li>

<li><a title="Preference (economics)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference_(economics)">Preference</a></li>

<li><a title="Sequential game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_game">Sequential game</a></li>

<li><a title="Simultaneous game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultaneous_game">Simultaneous game</a></li>

<li><a title="Simultaneous action selection" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultaneous_action_selection">Simultaneous action selection</a></li>

<li><a title="Solved game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solved_game">Solved game</a></li>

<li><a title="Succinct game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succinct_game">Succinct game</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th class="navbox-group" scope="row"><a title="Economic equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_equilibrium">Equilibrium</a>
<a title="Solution concept" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_concept">concepts</a></th>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a title="Nash equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash_equilibrium">Nash equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Subgame perfect equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgame_perfect_equilibrium">Subgame perfection</a></li>

<li><a title="Mertens-stable equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mertens-stable_equilibrium">Mertens-stable equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesian Nash equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_Nash_equilibrium">Bayesian Nash equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Perfect Bayesian equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_Bayesian_equilibrium">Perfect Bayesian equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Trembling hand perfect equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trembling_hand_perfect_equilibrium">Trembling hand</a></li>

<li><a title="Proper equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_equilibrium">Proper equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Epsilon-equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon-equilibrium">Epsilon-equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Correlated equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlated_equilibrium">Correlated equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Sequential equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_equilibrium">Sequential equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Quasi-perfect equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-perfect_equilibrium">Quasi-perfect equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Evolutionarily stable strategy" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li>

<li><a title="Risk dominance" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_dominance">Risk dominance</a></li>

<li><a title="Shapley value" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapley_value">Shapley value</a></li>

<li><a title="Pareto efficiency" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency">Pareto efficiency</a></li>

<li><a title="Potential game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_game#Bounded_Rational_Models">Gibbs equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Quantal response equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantal_response_equilibrium">Quantal response equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Self-confirming equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-confirming_equilibrium">Self-confirming equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Strong Nash equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_Nash_equilibrium">Strong Nash equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a title="Markov perfect equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_perfect_equilibrium">Markov perfect equilibrium</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th class="navbox-group" scope="row"><a title="Strategy (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_(game_theory)">Strategies</a></th>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Dominance (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_(game_theory)">Dominant strategies</a></li>

<li><a title="Strategy (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_(game_theory)">Pure strategy</a></li>

<li><a title="Strategy (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_(game_theory)#Mixed_strategy">Mixed strategy</a></li>

<li><a title="Strategy-stealing argument" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy-stealing_argument">Strategy-stealing argument</a></li>

<li><a title="Grim trigger" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grim_trigger">Grim trigger</a></li>

<li><a title="Collusion" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collusion">Collusion</a></li>

<li><a title="Backward induction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_induction">Backward induction</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Forward induction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_induction">Forward induction</a></li>

<li><a title="Markov strategy" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_strategy">Markov strategy</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th class="navbox-group" scope="row">Classes
of games</th>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a title="Symmetric game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_game">Symmetric game</a></li>

<li><a title="Perfect information" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_information">Perfect information</a></li>

<li><a title="Repeated game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeated_game">Repeated game</a></li>

<li><a title="Signaling game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_game">Signaling game</a></li>

<li><a title="Screening game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_game">Screening game</a></li>

<li><a title="Cheap talk" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheap_talk">Cheap talk</a></li>

<li><a title="Mechanism design" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism_design">Mechanism design</a></li>

<li><a title="Bargaining problem" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargaining_problem">Bargaining problem</a></li>

<li><a title="Stochastic game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_game">Stochastic game</a></li>

<li><a title="N-player game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-player_game"><em>n</em>-player game</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Large Poisson game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Poisson_game">Large Poisson game</a></li>

<li><a title="Nontransitive game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nontransitive_game">Nontransitive game</a></li>

<li><a title="Global game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_game">Global game</a></li>

<li><a title="Strictly determined game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strictly_determined_game">Strictly determined game</a></li>

<li><a title="Potential game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_game">Potential game</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th class="navbox-group" scope="row"><a title="List of games in game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_games_in_game_theory">Games</a></th>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a title="Chess" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess">Chess</a></li>

<li><a title="Infinite chess" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_chess">Infinite chess</a></li>

<li><a title="Draughts" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draughts">Checkers</a></li>

<li><a title="Prisoner's dilemma" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a></li>

<li><a title="Optional prisoner's dilemma" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optional_prisoner%27s_dilemma">Optional prisoner's dilemma</a></li>

<li><a title="Traveler's dilemma" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traveler%27s_dilemma">Traveler's dilemma</a></li>

<li><a title="Coordination game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_game">Coordination game</a></li>

<li><a title="Chicken (game)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_(game)">Chicken</a></li>

<li><a title="Centipede game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centipede_game">Centipede game</a></li>

<li><a title="Volunteer's dilemma" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer%27s_dilemma">Volunteer's dilemma</a></li>

<li><a title="Dollar auction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_auction">Dollar auction</a></li>

<li><a title="Battle of the sexes (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_sexes_(game_theory)">Battle of the sexes</a></li>

<li><a title="Matching pennies" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matching_pennies">Matching pennies</a></li>

<li><a title="Ultimatum game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimatum_game">Ultimatum game</a></li>

<li><a title="Rock–paper–scissors" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock%E2%80%93paper%E2%80%93scissors">Rock–paper–scissors</a></li>

<li><a title="Pirate game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate_game">Pirate game</a></li>

<li><a title="Dictator game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator_game">Dictator game</a></li>

<li><a title="Public goods game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_goods_game">Public goods game</a></li>

<li><a title="Blotto game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blotto_game">Blotto game</a></li>

<li><a title="War of attrition (game)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_attrition_(game)">War of attrition</a></li>

<li><a title="El Farol Bar problem" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Farol_Bar_problem">El Farol Bar problem</a></li>

<li><a title="Fair division" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_division">Fair division</a></li>

<li><a title="Fair cake-cutting" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_cake-cutting">Fair cake-cutting</a></li>

<li><a title="Cournot competition" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cournot_competition">Cournot game</a></li>

<li><a title="Deadlock (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadlock_(game_theory)">Deadlock</a></li>

<li><a title="Unscrupulous diner's dilemma" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unscrupulous_diner%27s_dilemma">Diner's dilemma</a></li>

<li><a title="Guess 2/3 of the average" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guess_2/3_of_the_average">Guess 2/3 of the average</a></li>

<li><a title="Kuhn poker" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuhn_poker">Kuhn poker</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Nash bargaining game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash_bargaining_game">Nash bargaining game</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners and hats puzzle" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_and_hats_puzzle">Prisoners and hats puzzle</a></li>

<li><a title="Dictator game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator_game#Trust_game">Trust game</a></li>

<li><a title="Princess and Monster game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_and_Monster_game">Princess and Monster game</a></li>

<li><a title="Rendezvous problem" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendezvous_problem">Rendezvous problem</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th class="navbox-group" scope="row">Theorems</th>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a title="Minimax" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimax">Minimax theorem</a></li>

<li><a title="Nash equilibrium" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash_equilibrium">Nash's theorem</a></li>

<li><a title="Purification theorem" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purification_theorem">Purification theorem</a></li>

<li><a title="Zermelo's theorem (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo%27s_theorem_(game_theory)">Zermelo's theorem</a></li>

<li><a title="Folk theorem (game theory)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_theorem_(game_theory)">Folk theorem</a></li>

<li><a title="Revelation principle" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revelation_principle">Revelation principle</a></li>

<li><a title="Arrow's impossibility theorem" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow%27s_impossibility_theorem">Arrow's impossibility theorem</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th class="navbox-group" scope="row">Key
figures</th>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a title="Albert W. Tucker" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_W._Tucker">Albert W. Tucker</a></li>

<li><a title="Amos Tversky" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li>

<li><a title="Ariel Rubinstein" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Rubinstein">Ariel Rubinstein</a></li>

<li><a title="Claude Shannon" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li>

<li><a title="Daniel Kahneman" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li>

<li><a title="David K. Levine" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_K._Levine">David K. Levine</a></li>

<li><a title="David M. Kreps" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_M._Kreps">David M. Kreps</a></li>

<li><a title="Donald B. Gillies" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_B._Gillies">Donald B. Gillies</a></li>

<li><a title="Drew Fudenberg" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Fudenberg">Drew Fudenberg</a></li>

<li><a title="Eric Maskin" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Maskin">Eric Maskin</a></li>

<li><a title="Harold W. Kuhn" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_W._Kuhn">Harold W. Kuhn</a></li>

<li><a title="Herbert A. Simon" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon">Herbert Simon</a></li>

<li><a title="Hervé Moulin" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Moulin">Hervé Moulin</a></li>

<li><a title="Jean Tirole" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Tirole">Jean Tirole</a></li>

<li><a title="Jean-François Mertens" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Mertens">Jean-François Mertens</a></li>

<li><a title="John Harsanyi" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harsanyi">John Harsanyi</a></li>

<li><a title="John Maynard Smith" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith">John Maynard Smith</a></li>

<li><a title="Antoine Augustin Cournot" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot">Antoine Augustin Cournot</a></li>

<li><a title="John von Neumann" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li>

<li><a title="Kenneth Arrow" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a></li>

<li><a title="Kenneth Binmore" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Binmore">Kenneth Binmore</a></li>

<li><a title="Leonid Hurwicz" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a></li>

<li><a title="Lloyd Shapley" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Shapley">Lloyd Shapley</a></li>

<li><a title="Melvin Dresher" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Dresher">Melvin Dresher</a></li>

<li><a title="Merrill M. Flood" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merrill_M._Flood">Merrill M. Flood</a></li>

<li><a title="Oskar Morgenstern" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Morgenstern">Oskar Morgenstern</a></li>

<li><a title="Paul Milgrom" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Milgrom">Paul Milgrom</a></li>

<li><a title="Peyton Young" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyton_Young">Peyton Young</a></li>

<li><a title="Reinhard Selten" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Selten">Reinhard Selten</a></li>

<li><a title="Robert Axelrod" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Axelrod">Robert Axelrod</a></li>

<li><a title="Robert Aumann" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Aumann">Robert Aumann</a></li>

<li><a title="Robert B. Wilson" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Wilson">Robert B. Wilson</a></li>

<li><a title="Roger Myerson" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Myerson">Roger Myerson</a></li>

<li><a title="Samuel Bowles (economist)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Bowles_(economist)">Samuel Bowles</a></li>

<li><a title="Thomas Schelling" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Schelling">Thomas Schelling</a></li>

<li><a title="William Vickrey" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Vickrey">William Vickrey</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<div>

<ul>

<li><a title="All-pay auction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-pay_auction">All-pay auction</a></li>

<li><a title="Alpha–beta pruning" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%E2%80%93beta_pruning">Alpha–beta pruning</a></li>

<li><a title="Bertrand paradox (economics)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_paradox_(economics)">Bertrand paradox</a></li>

<li><a title="Bounded rationality" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality">Bounded rationality</a></li>

<li><a title="Combinatorial game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_game_theory">Combinatorial game theory</a></li>

<li><a title="Confrontation analysis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confrontation_analysis">Confrontation analysis</a></li>

<li><a title="Coopetition" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coopetition">Coopetition</a></li>

<li><a title="First-move advantage in chess" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-move_advantage_in_chess">First-move advantage in chess</a></li>

<li><a title="Game mechanics" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_mechanics">Game mechanics</a></li>

<li><a title="Glossary of game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_game_theory">Glossary of game theory</a></li>

<li><a title="List of game theorists" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_game_theorists">List of game theorists</a></li>

<li><a title="List of games in game theory" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_games_in_game_theory">List of games in game theory</a></li>

<li><a title="No-win situation" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-win_situation">No-win situation</a></li>

<li><a title="Solving chess" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solving_chess">Solving chess</a></li>

<li><a title="Topological game" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_game">Topological game</a></li>

<li><a title="Tragedy of the commons" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li>

<li><a title="Tyranny of small decisions" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_small_decisions">Tyranny of small decisions</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

</tr>

</tbody>

</table>

</div>

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