Dilemma

<p>A <strong>dilemma</strong> (<a title="Greek language" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: <span lang="grc" title="Ancient Greek language text">δίλημμα</span> "double <a title="Lemma (logic)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_(logic)">proposition</a>") is a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Problem" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem">problem</a> offering two possibilities, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. The possibilities are termed the <em>horns</em> of the dilemma, a <a title="Cliché" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clich%C3%A9">clichéd</a> usage, but distinguishing the dilemma from other kinds of predicament as a matter of usage.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></p>

<h2>Contents</h2>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0"><span id="Terminology" class="mw-headline">Terminology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Terminology" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilemma&action=edit&section=1" data-section="1">Edit</a></span></h2>

<p>The term <em>dilemma</em> is attributed by <a title="Gabriel Nuchelmans" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Nuchelmans">Gabriel Nuchelmans</a> to <a title="Lorenzo Valla" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_Valla">Lorenzo Valla</a> in the 15th century, in later versions of his logic text traditionally called <em>Dialectica.</em> Valla claimed that it was the appropriate Latin equivalent of the Greek <em>dilemmaton.</em> Nuchelmans argued that his probable source was a logic text of c.1433 of <a title="George of Trebizond" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_of_Trebizond">George of Trebizond</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> He also concluded that Valla had reintroduced to the Latin West a type of argument that had fallen into disuse.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></p>

<p>Valla's neologism did not immediately take hold, preference being given to the established Latin term <em>complexio</em>, used by <a title="Cicero" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero">Cicero</a>, with <em>conversio</em> applied to the upsetting of dilemmatic reasoning. With the support of <a title="Juan Luis Vives" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Luis_Vives">Juan Luis Vives</a>, however, <em>dilemma</em> was widely applied by the end of the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></p>

<p>In the form "you must accept either A, or B" — here A and B are propositions each leading to some further conclusion — and applied incorrectly, the dilemma constitutes a <a class="mw-redirect" title="False dichotomy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_dichotomy">false dichotomy</a>, that is, a <a title="Fallacy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy">fallacy</a>. Traditional usage distinguished the dilemma as a "horned syllogism" from the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sophism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophism">sophism</a> that attracted the Latin name <em>cornutus.</em><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> The original use of the word <em>horns</em> in English has been attributed to <a title="Nicholas Udall" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Udall">Nicholas Udall</a> in his 1548 book <em>Paraphrases</em>, translating from the Latin term <em>cornuta interrogatio.</em><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></p>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0"><span id="Dilemmatic_arguments" class="mw-headline">Dilemmatic arguments</span><span class="mw-editsection"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Dilemmatic arguments" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilemma&action=edit&section=2" data-section="2">Edit</a></span></h2>

<p>The dilemma is sometimes used as a <a title="Rhetorical device" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorical_device">rhetorical device</a>. Its isolation as textbook material has been attributed to <a title="Hermogenes of Tarsus" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermogenes_of_Tarsus">Hermogenes of Tarsus</a> in his work <em>On Invention</em>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> <a class="mw-redirect" title="C. S. Peirce" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.S.Peirce">C. S. Peirce</a> gave a definition of <em>dilemmatic argument</em> as any argument relying on <a class="mw-redirect" title="Excluded middle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excluded_middle">excluded middle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block"><span id="In_logic" class="mw-headline">In logic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: In logic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilemma&action=edit&section=3" data-section="3">Edit</a></span></h3>

<p>In <a class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional logic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_logic">propositional logic</a>, <em>dilemma</em> is applied to a group of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of inference" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rules_of_inference">rules of inference</a>, which are in themselves valid rather than fallacious. They each have three premises, and include the <a title="Constructive dilemma" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_dilemma">constructive dilemma</a> and <a title="Destructive dilemma" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destructive_dilemma">destructive dilemma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Such arguments can be refuted by showing that the disjunctive premise — the "horns of the dilemma" — does not in fact hold, because it presents a false dichotomy. You are asked to accept "A or B", but counter by showing that is not all. Successfully undermining that premise is called "escaping through the horns of the dilemma".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block"><span id="In_philosophy" class="mw-headline">In philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: In philosophy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilemma&action=edit&section=4" data-section="4">Edit</a></span></h3>

<p>Dilemmatic reasoning has been attributed to <a title="Melissus of Samos" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos">Melissus of Samos</a>, a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Presocratic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presocratic">Presocratic</a> philosopher whose works survive in fragmentary form, making the origins of the technique in philosophy imponderable.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> It was established with <a title="Diodorus Cronus" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a> (died c. 284 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> The paradoxes of <a title="Zeno of Elea" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> were reported by <a title="Aristotle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in dilemma form, but that may have been to conform with what <a title="Plato" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> said about Zeno's style.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block"><span id="Moral_and_ethical_dilemmas" class="mw-headline">Moral and ethical dilemmas</span><span class="mw-editsection"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Moral and ethical dilemmas" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilemma&action=edit&section=5" data-section="5">Edit</a></span></h3>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Ethical dilemma" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_dilemma">ethical dilemma</a></div>

<p>In cases where two <a class="mw-redirect" title="Moral principle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_principle">moral principles</a> appear to be inconsistent, an actor confronts a dilemma in terms of which principle to follow. This kind of moral case study is attributed to <a title="Cicero" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero">Cicero</a>, in book III of his <em><a title="De Officiis" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Officiis">De Officiis</a></em>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> In the Christian tradition of <a title="Casuistry" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casuistry">casuistry</a>, an approach to abstract ranking of principles introduced by <a title="Bartolomé de Medina (theologian)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_Medina_(theologian)">Bartolomé de Medina</a> in the 16th century became tainted with the accusation of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Laxism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laxism">laxism</a>, as did casuistry itself.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Another approach, with legal roots, is to lay emphasis on particular features present in a given case: in other words, the exact framing of the dilemma.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup></p>

<p>In law, Valentin Jeutner has argued that the term "legal dilemma" could be used as a <a class="extiw" title="wiktionary:term of art" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/term_of_art">term-of-art</a>, to describe a situation where a legal subject is confronted with two or more legal norms that the legal subject cannot simultaneously comply with.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></p>

<p>Examples include contradictory contracts where one clause directly negates another clause, or conflicts between fundamental (e.g. <a title="Constitutional law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_law">constitutional</a>) legal norms. <a title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Leibniz'</a>s 1666 doctoral dissertation <em>De casibus perplexis</em> (Perplexing Cases) is an early study of contradictory legal conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> In domestic law, it has been argued that the <a title="Federal Constitutional Court" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Court">German Constitutional Court</a> confronted a legal dilemma when determining, in connection with proceedings relating to the German <a title="Luftsicherheitsgesetz" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftsicherheitsgesetz">Aviation Security Act</a>, whether a government official could intentionally kill innocent civilians by shooting down a hijacked airplane that would otherwise have crashed into a football stadium, killing tens of thousands.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></p>

<p>In international law, it has been suggested that the <a title="International Court of Justice" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice">International Court of Justice</a> confronted a legal dilemma in its 1996 <a class="mw-redirect" title="International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice_advisory_opinion_on_the_Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weapons">Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion</a>. It was faced with the question whether, in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, it is a state's right to <a title="Self-defence in international law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-defence_in_international_law">self-defence</a> or international law's general prohibition of <a title="Nuclear weapon" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon">nuclear weapons</a> that should take priority.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></p>

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<ul>

<li><a title="Trilemma" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilemma">Trilemma</a></li>

<li><a title="At Dulcarnon" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/At_Dulcarnon">At Dulcarnon</a></li>

</ul>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0"><span id="References" class="mw-headline">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: References" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilemma&action=edit&section=8" data-section="8">Edit</a></span></h2>

<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-1">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Garner, Bryan (2009). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FwmQpyibKkAC&pg=PA257" rel="nofollow"><em>Garner's Modern American Usage</em></a>. Oxford University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/9780199888771" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199888771"><bdi>9780199888771</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-2">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nuchelmans, Gabriel (1991). <em>Dilemmatic arguments : towards a history of their logic and rhetoric</em>. North-Holland. p. 89. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-444-85730-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-85730-3"><bdi>0-444-85730-3</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-3">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nuchelmans, Gabriel (1991). <em>Dilemmatic arguments : towards a history of their logic and rhetoric</em>. North-Holland. p. 94. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-444-85730-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-85730-3"><bdi>0-444-85730-3</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-4">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nuchelmans, Gabriel (1991). <em>Dilemmatic arguments : towards a history of their logic and rhetoric</em>. North-Holland. pp. 102–6. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-444-85730-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-85730-3"><bdi>0-444-85730-3</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-5">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hamilton, Sir William (1863). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rUEdAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA185" rel="nofollow"><em>The Logic of Sir William Hamilton, Bart</em></a>. Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-6">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Erasmus, Desiderius (2003). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q9ZLk_Qw0ZQC&pg=PA158" rel="nofollow"><em>Paraphrase on Luke 11-24</em></a>. University of Toronto Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/9780802036537" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802036537"><bdi>9780802036537</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-7">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text">Lucia Calboli Montefusco, <em>Rhetorical use of dilemmatic arguments</em>, Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric Vol. 28, No. 4 (Autumn 2010), pp. 363–383, at p. 364. Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric. DOI: 10.1525/rh.2010.28.4.363 <a title="JSTOR" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.2010.28.4.363" rel="nofollow">10.1525/rh.2010.28.4.363</a></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-8">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ghosh, Sujata; Prasad, Sanjiva (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=etrJDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA177" rel="nofollow"><em>Logic and Its Applications: 7th Indian Conference, ICLA 2017, Kanpur, India, January 5-7, 2017, Proceedings</em></a>. Springer. p. 177 note 5. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/9783662540695" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783662540695"><bdi>9783662540695</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-9">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Church, Alonzo (1996). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JDLQOMKbdScC&pg=PA105" rel="nofollow"><em>Introduction to Mathematical Logic</em></a>. Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0691029067" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691029067"><bdi>0691029067</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-10">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Govier, Trudy (2009). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IUxXbUvDiswC&pg=PA254" rel="nofollow"><em>A Practical Study of Argument</em></a>. Cengage Learning. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0495603406" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0495603406"><bdi>0495603406</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-11">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Harriman, Benjamin (2018). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e091DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA44" rel="nofollow"><em>Melissus and Eleatic Monism</em></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/9781108416337" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108416337"><bdi>9781108416337</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-12">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Sedley, David (2018). <a class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/diodorus-cronus" rel="nofollow">"Diodorus Cronus"</a>. <em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-13">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Palmer, John (2017). <a class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zeno-elea/" rel="nofollow">"Zeno of Elea"</a>. <em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-14">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jonsen, Albert R.; Toulmin, Stephen Edelston (1988). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RNipCKHdnlsC&pg=PA75" rel="nofollow"><em>The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning</em></a>. University of California Press. p. 75. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/9780520060630" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520060630"><bdi>9780520060630</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-15">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Peters, Francis E. (2003). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=26aSVSICGIEC&pg=PA154" rel="nofollow"><em>The words and will of God</em></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 154. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0691114617" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691114617"><bdi>0691114617</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-16">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jonsen, Albert R.; Toulmin, Stephen Edelston (1988). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RNipCKHdnlsC&pg=PA54" rel="nofollow"><em>The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning</em></a>. University of California Press. p. 54. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/9780520060630" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520060630"><bdi>9780520060630</bdi></a>.</cite></span></li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-17">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text">Birkenkötter, Hannah, <em>Valentin Jeutner: Irresolvable Norm Conflicts in International Law: The Concept of a Legal Dilemma</em>, 28 (2017) European Journal of International Law 1415-1428.</span></li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-18">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text">Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, "Inaugural Dissertation on Perplexing Cases in the Law" in Alberto Artosi, Bernardo Pieri, and Giovanni Sartor (eds.), <em>Leibniz: Logico-Philosophical Puzzles in the Law</em> (Springer 2013).</span></li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-19">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text">Jeutner, Valentin (2017), <a class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/irresolvable-norm-conflicts-in-international-law-9780198808374?cc=se&lang=en&" rel="nofollow">Irresolvable Norm Conflicts in International Law: The Concept of a Legal Dilemma</a>, Oxford University Press, p. 15, 72. See also Michael Bohlander, ‘Of Shipwrecked Sailors, Unborn Children, Conjoined Twins and Hijacked Airplanes—Taking Human Life and the Defence of Necessity’ (2006) 70 The Journal of Criminal Law 147.</span></li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><strong><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilemma#cite_ref-20">^{</a></strong></span> }<span class="reference-text">Jeutner, Valentin (2017), <a class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/irresolvable-norm-conflicts-in-international-law-9780198808374?cc=se&lang=en&" rel="nofollow">Irresolvable Norm Conflicts in International Law: The Concept of a Legal Dilemma</a>, Oxford University Press, p. 10-11.</span></li>

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