One of the early Christian texts considered scripture by some, but ultimately not included in the New Testament despite its popularity.
The New Testament was not written as a single book; individual authors did not imagine their work alongside others in the Canon.
Many additional texts, reflecting diverse early Christian communities and theological beliefs, did not make it into the New Testament.
Early texts circulated independently, not as a single codex (book) as seen after the printing press.
Compilation manuscripts, like the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus, included texts beyond the current 27 New Testament books, such as the Epistle of Barnabas and The Shepherd of Hermas, showing their early value.
Antiquity: Oldest Christian writings were sought, and most surviving oldest texts made it in. However, some equally old texts (e.g., hypothetical sayings gospel Q, a lost letter from Paul to Corinthians) were not included. Older texts could be absorbed into newer ones (e.g., Mark into Matthew).
Attribution to an Apostle or Apostolic Companion: This was crucial, even if the attribution was later and incorrect (e.g., canonical gospels). Claiming apostolic authorship increased a text's chance of inclusion.
Audience and Orthodoxy: Texts addressing audiences that died out or expressing teachings inconsistent with later Orthodoxy (e.g., heretical, Docetic, Adoptionist) were rejected.
Credibility/Fantastical Elements: Stories deemed too incredible or obviously forged (e.g., infancy gospels with wild magic, forged letters between Paul and Seneca) were excluded.
Flawed Process: The criteria for canon creation were flawed, meaning many valuable texts were excluded. Early Church Fathers' lists largely determined what was kept.
The Shepherd of Hermas's Exclusion
Authorship: Author clearly not an apostle.
Theology: Expresses ideas deemed heretical by proto-orthodoxy, possibly adoptionism and a non-Trinitarian Godhead.
Popularity: Despite its eventual exclusion, it was very popular, with more surviving manuscripts than almost any New Testament book, translated into many languages. It later fell out of popularity.
Cultural Impact: Believed to be the origin of the "shoulder angel/devil" convention.
Structure and Content of The Shepherd of Hermas
Form: Different from most New Testament texts (Gospels, Epistles, Acts, Apocalypse). It takes the form of dialogues with angels, specifically Hermes interacting with the "Shepherd," identified as the Angel of Repentance.
Sections: Divided into five visions, 12 mandates (commandments), and 10 similitudes (parables).
Length: Relatively long, potentially longer than all of Paul's letters combined or Luke-Acts.
Mandates/Similitudes: Feature long dialogues and commentaries, making them more elaborate than Jesus's parables.
Shoulder Angels (Mandate 6): Describes two angels with man, one of righteousness and one of evil, influencing actions.
Authorship and Dating of The Shepherd of Hermas
Setting: Set in Rome, clearly referencing Roman landmarks and Christian communities predating Paul's letter to the Romans.
Author's Identity: Author identifies as Hermes, a freedman of a woman named Rhoda.
Muratorian Fragment: An 8th-century codex fragment, potentially an early list of New Testament texts (late 2nd to 4th century), states Hermes wrote "very recently in our times...while Bishop Pius his brother was occupying the chair." This would date it to mid-2nd century (140-154 CE).
Debate on Muratorian Fragment: Its unknown author and date, plus its likely bias against the text, make its historical accuracy debatable.
Scholar's Reconstruction (Snyder): Suggests the first four visions (concerned with persecution) were written earlier (Trian's reign, late 1st/early 2nd century) by an educated Jewish freedman. The main section (from fifth vision onward, concerned with apostates after persecution) and the ninth similitude (reinterpreting third vision, threatening disloyal members) were added later by the same author, possibly compiled around 140 CE.
Textual Dependence: Unlike other early Christian texts, it does not directly quote any scriptures, only an almost unknown Old Testament Apocryphal book (Eldad and Modad). Similarities to Jamesian, Johannine, and Pauline traditions exist but are not direct textual dependencies.
Terminology: Author does not use "Christian," but refers to believers as "disciples," "slaves of God," or "saints." Does not quote Jesus or use the word "Christ" (though "Son of God" is discussed).
Theological Concepts in The Shepherd of Hermas
Fifth Similitude (Fasting and the Vineyard Parable):
Hermes dialogues with the Shepherd about true spiritual fasting versus literal fasting.
Emphasis on keeping commandments and law, suggesting an author from a Jewish Christian community, contrasting with Pauline views of salvation by faith alone.
Parable: A master (God) plants a vineyard, leaves a reliable slave (Son of God) to fence it, who does extra work. The master returns and makes the slave a co-heir with his beloved son.
Interpretation (Confusing Christology): The "beloved son" is the Holy Spirit, while the "slave" is the Son of God. The Holy Spirit is pre-existent and "caused to dwell in that flesh" (the servant/Son of God), who then serves well and is rewarded.
Possible Interpretations: May suggest binitarianism (God + Holy Spirit/Son of God as one person) or adoptionism (Jesus becoming Christ through perfect life and God's adoption).
Synergistic Salvation: Stresses good works and obedience to the law, in addition to faith, as necessary for salvation, contrasting with Paul's "faith alone" doctrine.
Ninth Similitude (Tower Allegory):
Reinterprets an earlier vision of a tower (the Church) being built from various stones (disciples).
Allegory Interpretation: The "Rock and Portico" are the Son of God, old (pre-existent wisdom) and new (manifest in "last days"). Virgins are Holy Spirits. Stones becoming white signify unity in Christ.
Defective Stones: Represent those who fell into temptation (e.g., recanted during persecution) but may still repent, though it won't be easy.
Baptism (Similitude 9):
Baptism is essential for salvation; going "down into the water dead and they come up alive."
Implies that after baptism, one must live a spotless life, creating a "baptismal dilemma" for early Christians, leading some to delay baptism until their deathbed (e.g., Emperor Constantine). This trend contributed to the later rise of infant baptism.
Diversity of Early Christianity
The Shepherd of Hermas shows remarkable diversity:
Written in Rome, but no mention of Peter or Paul or apostolic authority.
Doesn't quote Jesus or promote typical Christology, instead a unique intermixture of Holy Spirit and Son of God roles.
An example of writing by a Christian prophet, a common role in early Christianity (like the Book of Revelation).
Its popularity despite theological differences highlights the varied beliefs within early Christian communities.