Taurine

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<h1 id="firstHeading" lang="en">Taurine</h1>

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Taurine (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Help:IPA for English">ˈtɔraɪn,</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Help:IPA for English">-ɪn</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a>), or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_acid" title="Organic acid">organic acid</a> widely distributed in animal tissues. It is a major constituent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bile" title="Bile">bile</a> and can be found in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">large intestine</a> and accounts for up to 0.1% of total human body weight.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Taurine has many fundamental biological roles such as conjugation of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bile_acid" title="Bile acid">bile acids</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoregulation" title="Osmoregulation">osmoregulation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_stabilizing_effect" title="Membrane stabilizing effect">membrane stabilization</a> and modulation of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_signaling" title="Calcium signaling">calcium signaling</a>. It is essential for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">cardiovascular</a> function, and development and function of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscle</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. Taurine is unusual among biological molecules in being a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfonic_acid" title="Sulfonic acid">sulfonic acid</a>, while the vast majority of biologically occurring acids contain the more weakly acidic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxyl_group" title="Carboxyl group">carboxyl group</a>. While taurine is sometimes called an amino acid, and indeed is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a>containing an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino" title="Amino">amino</a> group, it is not an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> in the usual biochemical meaning of the term, which refers to compounds containing both an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino" title="Amino">amino</a> and a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxyl" title="Carboxyl">carboxyl</a> group.

<h2>Contents</h2>

[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#" id="togglelink">hide</a>] </div>

<ul>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Discovery_and_etymology">1 Discovery and etymology</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Structure">2 Structure</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Sources">3 Sources</a>

<ul>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Dietary_intake">3.1 Dietary intake</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Biosynthesis">3.2 Biosynthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Nutritional_significance">3.3 Nutritional significance</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Chemical_synthesis_and_commercial_production">3.4 Chemical synthesis and commercial production</a></li>

</ul>

</li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Physiological_functions">4 Physiological functions</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Toxicity">5 Toxicity</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#In_animal_nutrition">6 In animal nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#Other_uses">7 Other uses</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#References">8 References</a></li>

<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#External_links">9 External links</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

<h2>Discovery and etymology</h2>

Taurine is named after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> taurus (a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> ταῦρος) which means <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull" title="Bull">bull</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ox" title="Ox">ox</a>, as it was first isolated from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ox" title="Ox">ox</a> bile in 1827 by German scientists <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Tiedemann" title="Friedrich Tiedemann">Friedrich Tiedemann</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Gmelin" title="Leopold Gmelin">Leopold Gmelin</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

<h2>Structure</h2>

Taurine is a derivative of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a>, an amino acid which contains a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiol" title="Thiol">thiol</a> group. Taurine is one of the few known naturally occurring <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfonic_acid" title="Sulfonic acid">sulfonic acids</a>. In the strict sense, it is not an amino acid, as it lacks a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxyl group</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-3">[3]</a> but it is often called one, even in scientific literature.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-6">[6]</a> It does contain a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfonate" title="Sulfonate">sulfonate group</a> and may be called an amino sulfonic acid. Small polypeptides have been identified which contain taurine, but to date no<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminoacyl_tRNA_synthetase" title="Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase">aminoacyl tRNA synthetase</a> has been identified as specifically recognizing taurine and capable of incorporating it into a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">tRNA</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

<h2>Sources</h2>

<h3>Dietary intake</h3>

Taurine occurs naturally in food, especially in seafood and meat. The mean daily intake from omnivore diets was determined to be around 58 mg (range from 9 to 372 mg) and to be low or negligible from a strict vegan diet. In another study, taurine intake was estimated to be generally less than 200 mg/day, even in individuals eating a high-meat diet. According to another study, taurine consumption was estimated to vary between 40 and 400 mg/day. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-ref9-8">[8]</a>

<h3>Biosynthesis</h3>

Taurine is a major constituent of bile and can be found in the large intestine and in the tissues of many animals, including humans.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Bouckenooghe2006-9">[9]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Brosnan2006-10">[10]</a>Mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In this pathway, the thiol group of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a> is first oxidized to cysteine sulfinic acid by the enzyme <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine_dioxygenase" title="Cysteine dioxygenase">cysteine dioxygenase</a>. Cysteine sulfinic acid, in turn, is decarboxylated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfinoalanine_decarboxylase" title="Sulfinoalanine decarboxylase">sulfinoalanine decarboxylase</a> to form <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotaurine" title="Hypotaurine">hypotaurine</a>. It is unclear whether hypotaurine is then spontaneously or enzymatically oxidized to yield taurine.

<h3>Nutritional significance</h3>

A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscles</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-U.Warskulat.2C_U.Flogel.2C_C.Jacoby.2C_H.-G.Hartwig.2C_M.Thewissen.2C_M.W.Merx.2C_A.Molojavyi.2C_B.Heller-Stilb.2C_J.Schrader_and_D.Haussinger_2004_03.E2.80.930496fje-11">[11]</a> In addition, it has been shown to be effective in removing fatty liver deposits in rats, preventing liver disease, and reducing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrhosis" title="Cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a> in tested animals.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-13">[13]</a> There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering essential <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, taurine <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">supplementation</a> resulted in measurable decreases in blood pressure).[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]

Taurine is regularly used as an ingredient in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_drinks" title="Energy drinks">energy drinks</a>, with many containing 1000 mg per serving,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-14">[14]</a> and some as much as 2000 mg.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

A 2003 study by the European Food Safety Authority found no adverse effects for up to 1,000 mg of taurine per kilogram of body weight per day.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding that "The amounts of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guarana" title="Guarana">guarana</a>, taurine, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginseng" title="Ginseng">ginseng</a> found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

<h3>Chemical synthesis and commercial production</h3>

Synthetic taurine is obtained from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isethionic_acid" title="Isethionic acid">isethionic acid</a> (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene_oxide" title="Ethylene oxide">ethylene oxide</a> with aqueous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_bisulfite" title="Sodium bisulfite">sodium bisulfite</a>. Another approach is the reaction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziridine" title="Aziridine">aziridine</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurous_acid" title="Sulfurous acid">sulfurous acid</a>. This leads directly to taurine.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

In 1993, approximately 5,000–6,000 tons of taurine were produced for commercial purposes; 50% for pet food manufacture, 50% in pharmaceutical applications.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-kirk-19">[19]</a> As of 2010, China alone has more than 40 manufacturers of taurine. Most of these enterprises employ the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolamine" title="Ethanolamine">ethanolamine</a> method to produce a total annual production of about 3,000 tons.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Xia2010-20">[20]</a>

<h2>Physiological functions</h2>

Taurine is essential for cardiovascular function, and development and function of skeletal muscle, the retina and the central nervous system.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Huxtable1992-21">[21]</a>

Taurine is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted-Lowry_acid-base_theory" title="Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory">conjugated</a> via its amino terminal group with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenodeoxycholic_acid" title="Chenodeoxycholic acid">chenodeoxycholic acid</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholic_acid" title="Cholic acid">cholic acid</a> to form the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bile_salts" title="Bile salts">bile salts</a> sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PKa" title="PKa">pKa</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-22">[22]</a> of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures this <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">moiety</a> is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and, thus, improves the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactant</a> properties of the cholic acid conjugate.

Taurine crosses the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_stabilizing_effect" title="Membrane stabilizing effect">membrane stabilization</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-28">[28]</a> feedback inhibition of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophage</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_burst" title="Respiratory burst">respiratory burst</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose" title="Adipose">adipose</a> tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-30">[30]</a> calcium <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-31">[31]</a> recovery from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_shock" title="Osmotic shock">osmotic shock</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-32">[32]</a> protection against glutamate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitotoxicity" title="Excitotoxicity">excitotoxicity</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and prevention of epileptic seizures.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

It also acts as an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress induced by exercise.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

In a 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolipoprotein_B100" title="Apolipoprotein B100">apolipoprotein B100</a> and lipids in HepG2 cells.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-40">[40]</a> High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100 (essential structural component of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLDL" title="VLDL">VLDL</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDL" title="LDL">LDL</a>) are major risk factors of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>. Hence, taurine supplementation is possibly beneficial for the prevention of these diseases.

In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight adults. Furthermore, they reported body weight also decreased significantly in the taurine supplemented group.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-41">[41]</a> These findings are consistent with animal studies.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

Taurine has also been shown to help people with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure" title="Congestive heart failure">congestive heart failure</a> by increasing the force and effectiveness of heart-muscle contractions.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

Taurine levels were found to be significantly lower in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegan" title="Vegan">vegans</a> than in a control group on a standard American diet. Plasma taurine was 78% of control values, and urinary taurine was 29%.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

In cells, taurine keeps potassium and magnesium inside the cell, while keeping excessive sodium out. In this sense, it works like a diuretic. Because it aids the movement of potassium, sodium, and calcium in and out of the cell, taurine has been used as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplement</a> for epileptics, as well as for people who have uncontrollable facial twitches.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

According to animal studies, taurine produces an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytic</a> effect and may act as a modulator or antianxiety agent in the central nervous system by activating the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine_receptor" title="Glycine receptor">glycine receptor</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-48">[48]</a>

Taurine is necessary for normal skeletal muscle functioning. This was shown by a 2004 study<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-U.Warskulat.2C_U.Flogel.2C_C.Jacoby.2C_H.-G.Hartwig.2C_M.Thewissen.2C_M.W.Merx.2C_A.Molojavyi.2C_B.Heller-Stilb.2C_J.Schrader_and_D.Haussinger_2004_03.E2.80.930496fje-11">[11]</a> using mice with a genetic taurine deficiency. They had a nearly complete depletion of skeletal and cardiac muscle taurine levels. These mice had a reduction of more than 80% of exercise capacity compared to control mice. The authors expressed themselves as "surprised" their cardiac function showed as largely normal (given various other studies about effects of taurine on the heart).

Studies have shown taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow, motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabetic neuropathic rats.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Li2006-49">[49]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Pop2001-50">[50]</a>

In another study on diabetic rats, taurine significantly decreased weight and decreased <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugar" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a> in these animal models.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Nakaya2000-51">[51]</a> Likewise, a 2008 study demonstrated taurine administration to diabetic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">rabbits</a> resulted in 30% decrease in serum glucose levels.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-52">[52]</a> According to the single study on human subjects, daily administration of 1.5g taurine had no significant effect on insulin secretion or insulin sensitivity.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-53">[53]</a> There is evidence that taurine may exert a beneficial effect in preventing diabetes-associated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microangiopathy" title="Microangiopathy">microangiopathy</a> and tubulointerstitial injury in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_nephropathy" title="Diabetic nephropathy">diabetic nephropathy</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

Taurine acts as a glycation inhibitor. Studies have shown taurine-treated diabetic rats had a decrease in the formation of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_glycation_end_product" title="Advanced glycation end product">advanced glycation end products</a> (AGEs) and AGEs content.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> has found a link between cataract development and lower levels of vitamin B6, folate, and taurine in the diets of the elderly.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

Taurine has been investigated in animal studies as an alternative to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> as osmotic agent for use in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneal_dialysis" title="Peritoneal dialysis">peritoneal dialysis</a> solutions.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

<h2>Toxicity</h2>

Taurine is involved in a number of crucial physiological processes. However, the role of taurine in these processes is not clearly understood and the influence of high taurine doses on these processes is uncertain. A substantial increase in the plasma concentration of growth hormone was reported in some epileptic patients during taurine tolerance testing (oral dose of 50 mg per kg body mass per day), suggesting a potential to stimulate the hypothalamus and to modify neuroendocrine function. A 1966 study found an indication that taurine (2 g/day) has some function in the maintenance and possibly in the induction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psoriasis" title="Psoriasis">psoriasis</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-ref9-8">[8]</a> Three later studies failed to support that finding.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-62">[62]</a> It may also be necessary to take into consideration that absorption of taurine from beverages may be more rapid than from foods.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-ref9-8">[8]</a>

<h2>In animal nutrition</h2>

Taurine is an essential dietary requirement for feline health, since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat" title="Cat">cats</a> cannot synthesize the compound. The absence of taurine causes a cat's<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness – a condition known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_retinal_degeneration" title="Central retinal degeneration">central retinal degeneration</a>(CRD),<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-64">[64]</a> as well as hair loss and tooth decay. Decreased plasma taurine concentration has been demonstrated to be associated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy#Dilated_cardiomyopathy_in_dogs_and_cats" title="Dilated cardiomyopathy">feline dilated cardiomyopathy</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Unlike CRD, the condition is reversible with supplementation. Taurine is now a requirement of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Association_of_American_Feed_Control_Officials&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Association of American Feed Control Officials (page does not exist)">Association of American Feed Control Officials</a> (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine in dry food and 0.2% in wet food.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-66">[66]</a>

Research suggests taurine is essential to the normal development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">passerine</a> birds. Many passerines seek out taurine-rich <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a> to feed their young, particularly just after hatching. Researchers compared the behaviors and development of birds fed a taurine-supplemented diet to a control diet and found the juveniles fed taurine-rich diets as neonates were much larger risk takers and more adept at spatial learning tasks.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Arnold2007-67">[67]</a>

<h2>Other uses</h2>

Since the 2000s cosmetic compositions containing taurine have been introduced, possibly due to its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">antifibrotic</a> properties. It has been shown to prevent the damaging effects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TGFB1" title="TGFB1">TGFB1</a> to hair follicles.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-Collin2006-68">[68]</a> It also helps to maintain skin hydration.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

Prematurely born infants are believed to lack the enzymes needed to convert <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystathionine" title="Cystathionine">cystathionine</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a>, and may, therefore, become deficient in taurine. Taurine is present in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">breast milk</a>, and has been added to many infant formulas, as a measure of prudence, since the early 1980s. However, this practice has never been rigorously studied, and as such it has yet to be proven to be necessary, or even beneficial.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-70">[70]</a>

Taurine is also used in some contact lens solutions.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_note-71">[71]</a>

<h2>References</h2>

<div>

<ol>

<li id="cite_note-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-1">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Huxtable RJ (1992). "Physiological actions of taurine". Physiol Rev 72 (1): 101–163. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1731369">1731369</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-2">Jump up^{</a> F}. Tiedemann, L. Gmelin; Gmelin (1827). "Einige neue Bestandtheile der Galle des Ochsen". Annalen der Physik 85 (2): 326–37.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1827AnP....85..326T">1827AnP....85..326T</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18270850214">10.1002/andp.18270850214</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-3">Jump up^{</a> Carey}, FA (2006). Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. p. 1149. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-282837-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-282837-4">0-07-282837-4</a>. "Amino acids are carboxylic acids that contain an amine function."</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-4">Jump up^{</a> Stapleton}, PP; L O'Flaherty, HP Redmond, and DJ Bouchier-Hayes (1998). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://jpen.aspenjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/22/1/42">"Host defense--a role for the amino acid taurine?"</a>. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 22 (1): 42–8.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F014860719802200142">10.1177/014860719802200142</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9437654">9437654</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-5">Jump up^{</a> Weiss}, SJ; Klein R, Slivka A, Wei M (1982). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC370261">"Chlorination of Taurine by Human Neutrophils"</a>. Journal of Clinical Investigation 70 (3): 598–607.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1172%2FJCI110652">10.1172/JCI110652</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC370261">370261</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6286728">6286728</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-6">Jump up^{</a> Kirk}, K; Kirk, J (1993). "Volume-regulatory taurine release from a human heart cancer cell line". FEBS Letters 336 (1): 153–8. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-5793%2893%2981630-I">10.1016/0014-5793(93)81630-I</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8262200">8262200</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-7">Jump up^{</a> Lahdesmaki}, P (1987). "Biosynthesis of taurine peptides in brain cytoplasmic fraction in vitro". Int J Neuroscience 37 (1–2): 79–84.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3109%2F00207458708991804">10.3109/00207458708991804</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-ref9-8">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-ref9_8-0">Jump up to:a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-ref9_8-1">b</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-ref9_8-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out22_en.html">"Opinion on Caffeine, Taurine and D-Glucurono — g -Lactone as constituents of so-called "energy" drinks"</a>. Directorate-General Health and Consumers, European Commission, European Union. 1999-01-21.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bouckenooghe2006-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Bouckenooghe2006_9-0">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Bouckenooghe T, Remacle C, Reusens B (2006). "Is taurine a functional nutrient?". Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 9 (6): 728–33. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F01.mco.0000247469.26414.55">10.1097/01.mco.0000247469.26414.55</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17053427">17053427</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Brosnan2006-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Brosnan2006_10-0">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Brosnan J, Brosnan M (2006). "The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview". J Nutr 136 (6 Suppl): 1636S–40S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702333">16702333</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-U.Warskulat.2C_U.Flogel.2C_C.Jacoby.2C_H.-G.Hartwig.2C_M.Thewissen.2C_M.W.Merx.2C_A.Molojavyi.2C_B.Heller-Stilb.2C_J.Schrader_and_D.Haussinger_2004_03.E2.80.930496fje-11">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-U.Warskulat.2C_U.Flogel.2C_C.Jacoby.2C_H.-G.Hartwig.2C_M.Thewissen.2C_M.W.Merx.2C_A.Molojavyi.2C_B.Heller-Stilb.2C_J.Schrader_and_D.Haussinger_2004_03.E2.80.930496fje_11-0">Jump up to:a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-U.Warskulat.2C_U.Flogel.2C_C.Jacoby.2C_H.-G.Hartwig.2C_M.Thewissen.2C_M.W.Merx.2C_A.Molojavyi.2C_B.Heller-Stilb.2C_J.Schrader_and_D._Haussinger_2004_03.E2.80.930496fje_11-1">b</a> U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger (2004). "Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised". The FASEB Journal 18 (3): 03–0496fje.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.03-0496fje">10.1096/fj.03-0496fje</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14734644">14734644</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-12">Jump up^{</a> Kerai}, MDJ; Catherine J. Waterfield, S. H. Kenyon, D. S. Asker, J. A. Timbrell (1998). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/m4467644l7738uw7/">"Taurine: Protective properties against ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis and lipid peroxidation during chronic ethanol consumption in rats"</a>. Amino Acids 15 (1–2): 53–76. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01345280">10.1007/BF01345280</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9871487">9871487</a>.</li>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-14">Jump up^{</a> rockstar69.com }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.rockstar69.com/productIngredients.php?pdt=1">Original Rockstar Ingredients</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-15">Jump up^{</a> Chang}, PL (2008-05-03). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://energyfanatics.com/2008/05/03/nos-energy-drink-review/">"Nos Energy Drink – Review"</a>. energyfanatics.com. Retrieved 2010-05-21.</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-16">Jump up^{</a> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902328128.htm">EFSA adopts opinion on two ingredients commonly used in some energy drinks</a> efsa.europa.eu/</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-17">Jump up^{</a> Clauson}, KA; Shields, KM; McQueen, CE; Persad, N (2008). "Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks". Journal of the American Pharmacists Association : JAPhA 48 (3): e55–63; quiz e64–7. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1331%2FJAPhA.2008.07055">10.1331/JAPhA.2008.07055</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18595815">18595815</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-18">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Kosswig K, ed. (2000). "Sulfonic Acids, Aliphatic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a25_503">10.1002/14356007.a25_503</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-kirk-19"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-kirk_19-0">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Tully PS, ed. (2000). "Sulfonic Acids". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F0471238961.1921120620211212.a01">10.1002/0471238961.1921120620211212.a01</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Xia2010-20"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Xia2010_20-0">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Amanda Xia (2010-01-03). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://uberarticles.com/miscellaneous/china-taurine-market-is-expected-to-recover/">"China Taurine Market Is Expected To Recover"</a>. Press release and article directory: technology. Retrieved 2010-05-24.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Huxtable1992-21"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Huxtable1992_21-0">Jump up^{</a> Huxtable}, RJ (1992). "Physiological actions of taurine". Physiol Rev 72(1): 101–63. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1731369">1731369</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-22">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Irving CS, Hammer BE, Danyluk SS, Klein PD (1980). "13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study of the Complexation of Calcium by Taurine".Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 13 (2): 137–50. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0162-0134%2800%2980117-8">10.1016/S0162-0134(00)80117-8</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7431022">7431022</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-23">Jump up^{</a> Urquhart}, N; Perry, TL; Hansen, S; Kennedy, J (1974). "Passage of taurine into adult mammalian brain". Journal of Neurochemistry 22 (5): 871–2.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-4159.1974.tb04309.x">10.1111/j.1471-4159.1974.tb04309.x</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4407108">4407108</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-24">Jump up^{</a> Tsuji}, A; Tamai, I (1996). "Sodium- and chloride-dependent transport of taurine at the blood–brain barrier". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 403: 385–91. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4899-0182-8_41">10.1007/978-1-4899-0182-8_41</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8915375">8915375</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-25">Jump up^{</a> Salimäki}, J; Scriba, G; Piepponen, TP; Rautolahti, N; Ahtee, L (2003). "The effects of systemically administered taurine and N-pivaloyltaurine on striatal extracellular dopamine and taurine in freely moving rats". Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 368 (2): 134–41.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00210-003-0776-6">10.1007/s00210-003-0776-6</a>.</li>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-27">Jump up^{</a> Dominy}, J Jr; Thinschmidt, JS; Peris, J; Dawson, R Jr; Papke, RL (2004). "Taurine-induced long-lasting potentiation in the rat hippocampus shows a partial dissociation from total hippocampal taurine content and independence from activation of known taurine transporters". Journal of Neurochemistry 89 (5): 1195–205. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-4159.2004.02410.x">10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02410.x</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15147512">15147512</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-28">Jump up^{</a> Birdsall}, TC (1998). "Therapeutic applications of taurine". Alternative Medicine Review 3 (2): 128–36. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9577248">9577248</a>.</li>

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<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-30">Jump up^{</a> Tsuboyama-Kasaoka}, N; Shozawa, C; Sano, K; Kamei, Y; Kasaoka, S; Hosokawa, Y; Ezaki, O (2006). "Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) deficiency creates a vicious circle promoting obesity". Endocrinology 147(7): 3276–84. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1210%2Fen.2005-1007">10.1210/en.2005-1007</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16627576">16627576</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-31">Jump up^{</a> Foos}, TM; Wu, JY (2002). "The role of taurine in the central nervous system and the modulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis".Neurochemical Research 27 (1–2): 21–6.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1014890219513">10.1023/A:1014890219513</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11926272">11926272</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-32">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Stummer W, Betz AL, Shakui P, Keep RF (1995). "Blood–brain barrier taurine transport during osmotic stress and in focal cerebral ischemia".Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 15 (5): 852–9.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fjcbfm.1995.106">10.1038/jcbfm.1995.106</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7673378">7673378</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-33">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Leon R, Wu H, Jin Y, Wei J, Buddhala C, Prentice H, Wu JY (2008). "Protective function of taurine in glutamate-induced apoptosis in cultured neurons". Journal of Neuroscience Research.</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-34">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};El Idrissi A, Messing J, Scalia J, Trenkner E; Messing; Scalia; Trenkner (2003). "Prevention of epileptic seizures by taurine". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 526: 515–25. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-0077-3_62">10.1007/978-1-4615-0077-3_62</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12908638">12908638</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-35">Jump up^{</a> Green}, TR; Fellman, JH; Eicher, AL; Pratt, KL (1991). "Antioxidant role and subcellular location of hypotaurine and taurine in human neutrophils".Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1073 (1): 91–7. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0304-4165%2891%2990187-L">10.1016/0304-4165(91)90187-L</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1846756">1846756</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-36">Jump up^{</a> Gürer}, H; Ozgünes, H; Saygin, E; Ercal, N (2001). "Antioxidant effect of taurine against lead-induced oxidative stress". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 41 (4): 397–402.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs002440010265">10.1007/s002440010265</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11598776">11598776</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-37">Jump up^{</a> Das}, J; Ghosh, J; Manna, P; Sil, PC (2008). "Taurine provides antioxidant defense against NaF-induced cytotoxicity in murine hepatocytes".Pathophysiology 15 (3): 181–90. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pathophys.2008.06.002">10.1016/j.pathophys.2008.06.002</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18676123">18676123</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-38">Jump up^{</a> Sinha}, M; Manna, P; Sil, PC (2008). "Taurine protects the antioxidant defense system in the erythrocytes of cadmium treated mice". BMB Reports41 (9): 657–63. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5483%2FBMBRep.2008.41.9.657">10.5483/BMBRep.2008.41.9.657</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18823590">18823590</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-39">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Zhang M, Izumi I, Kagamimori S, Sokejima S, Yamagami T, Liu Z, Qi B (2004). "Role of taurine supplementation to prevent exercise-induced oxidative stress in healthy young men". Amino Acids 26 (2): 203–7.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00726-003-0002-3">10.1007/s00726-003-0002-3</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15042451">15042451</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-40">Jump up^{</a> Yanagita}, T; Han, SY; Hu, Y; Nagao, K; Kitajima, H; Murakami, S (2008). "Taurine reduces the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells". Lipids in Health and Disease 7: 38. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-511x-7-38">10.1186/1476-511x-7-38</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-41">Jump up^{</a> Zhang}, M; Bi, LF; Fang, JH; Su, XL; Da, GL; Kuwamori, T; Kagamimori, S (2004). "Beneficial effects of taurine on serum lipids in overweight or obese non-diabetic subjects". Amino Acids 26 (3): 267–71. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00726-003-0059-z">10.1007/s00726-003-0059-z</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15221507">15221507</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-42">Jump up^{</a> Choi}, MJ; Kim, JH; Chang, KJ (2006). "The effect of dietary taurine supplementation on plasma and liver lipid concentrations and free amino acid concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 583: 235–42. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-33504-9_25">10.1007/978-0-387-33504-9_25</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-32356-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-32356-5">978-0-387-32356-5</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17153607">17153607</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-43">Jump up^{</a> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.peacehealth.org/KBASE/cam/hn-1193009.htm">Congestive Heart Failure</a>, Healthnotes, Inc, PeaceHealth, January 19, 2007</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-44">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Laidlaw S, Shultz T, Cecchino J, Kopple J (1988). "Plasma and urine taurine levels in vegans". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47 (4): 660–3. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3354491">3354491</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-45">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Kirk J and Kirk K. Inhibition of volume-activated I- and taurine efflux from HeLa cells by P-glycoprotein blockers correlates with calmodulin inhibition. J. Biol. Chem., Nov 1994;269:29389–29394.</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-46">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Kong WX, Chen SW, Li YL, et al. (2006). "Effects of taurine on rat behaviors in three anxiety models". Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav 83 (2): 271–6. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pbb.2006.02.007">10.1016/j.pbb.2006.02.007</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16540157">16540157</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-47">Jump up^{</a> Zhang}, CG; Kim, SJ (2007). "Taurine induces anti-anxiety by activating strychnine-sensitive glycine receptor in vivo". Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 51 (4): 379–86. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000107687">10.1159/000107687</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-48">Jump up^{</a> Chen}, SW; Kong, WX; Zhang, YJ; Li, YL; Mi, XJ; Mu, XS (2004). "Possible anxiolytic effects of taurine in the mouse elevated plus-maze". Life Sciences75 (12): 1503–11. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.lfs.2004.03.010">10.1016/j.lfs.2004.03.010</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15240184">15240184</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Li2006-49"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Li2006_49-0">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Li F, Abatan OI, Kim H, Burnett D, Larkin D, Obrosova IG, Stevens MJ (2006). "Taurine reverses neurological and neurovascular deficits in Zucker diabetic fatty rats". Neurobiology of Disease 22 (3): 669–76.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nbd.2006.01.012">10.1016/j.nbd.2006.01.012</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16624563">16624563</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Pop2001-50"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Pop2001_50-0">Jump up^{</a> Pop}-Busui R, Sullivan KA, Van Huysen C, Bayer L, Cao X, Towns R, Stevens MJ (2001). "Depletion of taurine in experimental diabetic neuropathy: implications for nerve metabolic, vascular, and functional deficits". Exp Neurol 168 (2): 259–72. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1006%2Fexnr.2000.7591">10.1006/exnr.2000.7591</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11259114">11259114</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Nakaya2000-51"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Nakaya2000_51-0">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Yutaka Nakaya, Asako Minami, Nagakatsu Harada, Sadaichi Sakamoto, Yasuharu Niwa and Masaharu Ohnaka (2000). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/71/1/54">"Taurine improves insulin sensitivity in the Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rat, a model of spontaneous type 2 diabetes"</a>. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71(1): 54–8. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10617946">10617946</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-52">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Winiarska K, Szymanski K, Gorniak P, Dudziak M, Bryla J (2008). "Hypoglycaemic, antioxidative and nephroprotective effects of taurine in alloxan diabetic rabbits". Biochimie.</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-53">Jump up^{</a> C}. Brøns, C. Spohr, H. Storgaard, J. Dyerberg, A. Vaag. "Effect of taurine treatment on insulin secretion and action, and on serum lipid levels in overweight men with a genetic predisposition for type II diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2004) 58, 1239–1247.</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-54">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Wu QD, Wang JH, Fennessy F, Redmond HP, Bouchier-Hayes D (1999). "Taurine prevents high-glucose-induced human vascular endothelial cell apoptosis". The American journal of physiology 277 (6 Pt 1): C1229–38.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10600775">10600775</a>.</li>

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<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-56">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Effects of taurine on advanced glycosylation end products and expression of TGF-β in renal cortex of, TsingHua, 2005,<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.shvoong.com/medicine-and-health/1599878-effects-taurine-advanced-glycosylation-end/">http://www.shvoong.com/medicine-and-health/1599878-effects-taurine-advanced-glycosylation-end/</a></li>

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-58">Jump up^{</a> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/ar/archive/nov03/ars1103.htm">"ARS: 50 Years of Research for the Growing World"</a>. Ars.usda.gov. Retrieved 2012-10-27.</li>

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<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-63">Jump up^{</a> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20061019160558/http://www.iams.com/en_BI/jhtmls/nutrition/sw_NutritionQuestions_qanswer.jhtml?li=en_BI&sc=C&bc=I&pti=PN&qi=2169">"Taurine And Its Importance In Cat Foods"</a>. Iams Cat Nutrition Library. 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iams.com/en_BI/jhtmls/nutrition/sw_NutritionQuestions_qanswer.jhtml?li=en_BI&sc=C&bc=I&pti=PN&qi=2169">the original</a> on 2006-10-19. Retrieved 2006-08-22.</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-64">Jump up^{</a> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://newton.nap.edu/catalog/910.html">"Nutrient Requirements of Cats"</a>. Nutrient Requirements of Cats, Revised Edition, 1986. 1986. Retrieved 2006-09-10.</li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-65">Jump up^{</a> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;237/4816/764?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=Pion+Taurine&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT">Myocardial failure in cats associated with low plasma taurine: a reversible cardiomyopathy</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-66">Jump up^{</a> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://maxshouse.com/nutrition/aafco_cat_food_nutrient_profiles.htm">AAFCO</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-Arnold2007-67"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Arnold2007_67-0">Jump up^{</a> Arnold}, KE; Ramsay, S.L.; Donaldson, C.; Adam, A (2007). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/index/M820008244125737.pdf">"Parental prey selection affects risk-taking behaviour and spatial learning in avian offspring"</a>. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274 (1625): 2563–9.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0687">10.1098/rspb.2007.0687</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275882">2275882</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17698490">17698490</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Collin2006-68"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-Collin2006_68-0">Jump up^{</a> Collin}, C; Gautier, B; Gaillard, O; Hallegot, P; Chabane, S; Bastien, P; Peyron, M; Bouleau, M et al. (2006). "Protective effects of taurine on human hair follicle grown in vitro". International Journal of Cosmetic Science 28(4): 289–98. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-2494.2006.00334.x">10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00334.x</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0142-5463">0142-5463</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489269">18489269</a>. "We showed that taurine [...] prevented TGF-β1-induced deleterious effects on hair follicle."</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-69">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Janeke G, Siefken W, Carstensen S, Springmann G, Bleck O, Steinhart H, Höger P, Wittern KP, Wenck H, Stäb F, Sauermann G, Schreiner V, Doering T (2003). "Role of taurine accumulation in keratinocyte hydration".The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 121 (2): 354–61.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1747.2003.12366.x">10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12366.x</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12880428">12880428</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-70">Jump up^{</a>&nbsp};Heird W.C. "Taurine in neonatal nutrition—revisited," <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archives_of_Disease_in_Childhood" title="Archives of Disease in Childhood">Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal Neonatal</a>. 2004 November; 89(6): F473-F474.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fadc.2004.055095">10.1136/adc.2004.055095</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-71">Jump up^{</a> James}, TJ; Hansen D; Nolfi, J (2004-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3921/is_200404/ai_n9383869">"Ocular Health and Next Generation Solutions"</a>. Optometric Management. Retrieved 2008-01-10.</li>

</ol>

</div>

<h2>External links</h2>

<ul>

<li><a rel="nofollow" href="http://gmd.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/Spectrums/6154d00d-dd57-40a7-86b7-a591f6f91dd6.aspx">Taurine MS Spectrum</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ebi.ac.uk/pdbe-srv/PDBeXplore/ligand/?ligand=TAU">Taurine bound to proteins</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">PDB</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

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</table>

Taurine

Attachments