Breadmaking

<p>Source:<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking</a>

<b>Bread</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staple_food" title="Staple food" >staple food</a> prepared by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking" >cooking</a> a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dough" title="Dough" >dough</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour" title="Flour" >flour</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water" >water</a> and often additional ingredients. Doughs are usually <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baked" title="Baked" class="mw-redirect" >baked</a>, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantou" title="Mantou" >mantou</a>), fried (e.g., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puri(food)" title="Puri (food)" >puri</a>), or baked on an unoiled <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frying_pan" title="Frying pan" >frying pan</a> (e.g., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortilla" title="Tortilla" >tortillas</a>). It may be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent" >leavened</a> or unleavened (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matzo" title="Matzo" >matzo</a>). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edible_salt" title="Edible salt" class="mw-redirect" >Salt</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat" title="Fat" >fat</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent" >leavening agents</a> such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast(baking)" title="Yeast (baking)" class="mw-redirect" >yeast</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_soda" title="Baking soda" class="mw-redirect" >baking soda</a> are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk" title="Milk" >milk</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg(food)" title="Egg (food)" >egg</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar" >sugar</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice" title="Spice" >spice</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit" >fruit</a> (such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raisin" title="Raisin" >raisins</a>),<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable" >vegetables</a> (such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onion" title="Onion" >onion</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)" >nuts</a> (such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut" >walnuts</a>) or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed" title="Seed" >seeds</a> (such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppy_seed" title="Poppy seed" >poppy</a>). Referred to colloquially as the "staff of life", bread has been prepared for at least 30,000 years. The development of leavened bread can probably also be traced to prehistoric times. Sometimes, the word <i>bread</i> refers to a sweetened loaf cake, often containing appealing ingredients like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dried_fruit" title="Dried fruit" >dried fruit</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_chips" title="Chocolate chips" class="mw-redirect" >chocolate chips</a>, nuts or spices, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumpkin_bread" title="Pumpkin bread" >pumpkin bread</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana_bread" title="Banana bread" >banana bread</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gingerbread" title="Gingerbread" >gingerbread</a>.

Fresh bread is prized for its taste, aroma, quality, appearance and texture. Retaining its freshness is important to keep it appetizing. Bread that has stiffened or dried past its prime is said to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staling" title="Staling" >stale</a>. Modern bread is sometimes wrapped in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper" title="Paper" >paper</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic" >plastic</a> film or stored in a container such as a<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadbox" title="Breadbox" >breadbox</a> to reduce drying. Bread that is kept in warm, moist environments is prone to the growth of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold" >mold</a>. Bread kept at low temperatures, in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator" >refrigerator</a> for example, will develop mold growth more slowly than bread kept at room temperature, but will turn stale quickly due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrogradation_(starch)" title="Retrogradation (starch)" >retrogradation</a>.

The soft, inner part of bread is known to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker" title="Baker" >bakers</a> and other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culinary_professional" title="Culinary professional" class="mw-redirect" >culinary professionals</a> as the <i>crumb</i>, which is not to be confused with small bits of bread that often fall off, called <i>crumbs</i>. The outer hard portion of bread is called the <i>crust</i>.

 </p>

<h2 >Etymology</h2>

<p >The word itself, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_language" title="Old English language" class="mw-redirect" >Old English</a> <i>bread</i>, is common in various forms to many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_language" title="Germanic language" class="mw-redirect" >Germanic languages</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language" >Frisian</a> <i>brea</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language" >Dutch</a> <i>brood</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language" >German</a> <i>Brot</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish(language)" title="Swedish (language)" class="mw-redirect" >Swedish</a> <i>bröd</i>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language" >Norwegian</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language" >Danish</a> <i>brød</i>; it has been claimed to be derived from the root of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing" >brew</a></i>. It may be connected with the root of <i>break</i>, for its early uses are confined to <i>broken pieces</i> or <i>bits</i> of bread, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin" >Latin</a> <i>crustum</i>, and it was not until the 12th century that it took the place—as the generic name for bread—of <i>hlaf</i> (<i>𐌷𐌻𐌰𐌹𐍆𐍃 [hlaifs]</i> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language" >Gothic</a>: modern English <i>loaf</i>), which appears to be the oldest <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages" >Teutonic</a> name. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German" >Old High German</a> <i>hleib</i><sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-0" >[1]</a></sup> and modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language" >German</a> <i>Laib</i> derive from this <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic" title="Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" >Proto-Germanic</a> word for "loaf", and through borrowing it gave rise to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language" >Polish</a> chleb, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language" >Russian</a> <i>хлеб (khleb)</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish(language)" title="Finnish (language)" class="mw-redirect" >Finnish</a> <i>leipä</i> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language" >Estonian</a><i>leib</i> as well.</p>

<h2 >History</h2>

<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" >Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_bread" title="History of bread" >History of bread</a></div>

<p >Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-1" >[2]</a></sup> It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic" >Neolithic</a>age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including the surface of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal" >cereal grains</a>, so any dough left to rest will become naturally leavened.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-2" >[3]</a></sup> There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder" >Pliny the Elder</a> reported that the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls" >Gauls</a> and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians" >Iberians</a> used the foam skimmed from beer to produce "a lighter kind of bread than other peoples." Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape" title="Grape" >grape</a> juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine" >wine</a>, as a source for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast" >yeast</a>. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to use as a form of sourdough<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_starter" title="Bread starter" class="mw-redirect" >starter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-3" >[4]</a></sup>

A major advance happened in 1961 with the development of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorleywood_bread_process" title="Chorleywood bread process" >Chorleywood bread process</a>, which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" title="Fermentation (food)" >fermentation</a> period and the time taken to produce a loaf. The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of lower protein grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories. As a result, bread can be produced very quickly and at low costs to the manufacturer and the consumer.

Recently, domestic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_machine" title="Bread machine" >bread machines</a> that automate the process of making bread have become popular.</p>

<h2 >Cultural and political importance of bread</h2>

<p >As a foodstuff of great historical and contemporary importance, in many cultures in the West and Near and Middle East bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer" >Lord's Prayer</a>, for example, contains the line "Give us this day our daily bread"; here, "bread" is commonly understood to mean necessities in general. Bread is also significant in Christianity as one of the elements (alongside <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine" >wine</a>) of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist" >Eucharist</a>; see<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramental_bread" title="Sacramental bread" >sacramental bread</a>. The word <i>companion</i> comes from Latin <i>com-</i> "with" + <i>panis</i> "bread". The Roman poet <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal" >Juvenal</a> satirised superficial politicians and the public as caring only for "<i>panem et circenses</i>" (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_and_circuses" title="Bread and circuses" >bread and circuses</a>). In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel" title="Israel" >Israel</a>, the most usual phrase in work-related demonstrations is "lekhem, avoda" [bread, work], and during the 1950s the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatnik" title="Beatnik" >beatnik</a> community used the term <i>bread</i> as a euphemism for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money" title="Money" >money</a>. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyming_slang" title="Rhyming slang" >Cockney rhyming slang</a>, <i>bread</i> means money; this usage is derived from the phrase "bread and honey".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-4" >[5]</a></sup> The word <i>bread</i> is now commonly used around the world in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" title="English language" >English</a>-speaking countries as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym" >synonym</a> for money (as is also the case with the word <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dough" title="Dough" >dough</a>).

The cultural importance of bread goes beyond slang to serve as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor" >metaphor</a> for basic necessities and living conditions in general. A "bread-winner" is a household's main economic contributor and has little to do with actual bread-provision, for example. This is also seen in the phrase "putting bread on the table". A remarkable or revolutionary innovation is often referred to as "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_greatest_thing_since_sliced_bread" title="The greatest thing since sliced bread" class="mw-redirect" >the greatest thing since sliced bread</a>". In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic" >Russia</a> in 1917, Lenin and his fellow Bolsheviks promised "Peace, Land, and Bread."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-5" >[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-6" >[7]</a></sup> The term "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadbasket" title="Breadbasket" >breadbasket</a>" is often used to denote an agriculturally productive region. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peoples" title="Slavic peoples" >Slavic</a> cultures <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_and_salt" title="Bread and salt" >bread and salt</a> is offered as a welcome to all guests. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India" >India</a>, life's basic necessities are often referred to as "roti, kapra aur makan" (bread, cloth, and house).

The political significance of bread is considerable. In Britain in the nineteenth century the inflated price of bread due to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws" >Corn Laws</a> caused major political and social divisions, and was central to debates over <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade" >free trade</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism" >protectionism</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assize_of_Bread_and_Ale" title="Assize of Bread and Ale" >Assize of Bread and Ale</a> in the thirteenth century demonstrated the importance of bread in medieval times by setting heavy punishments for short-changing bakers, and bread appeared in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta" >Magna Carta</a></i> a half-century earlier.</p>

<h2 >Types</h2>

<div class="rellink boilerplate seealso" >See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_breads" title="List of breads" >List of breads</a></div>

White bread (left) and brown bread.</div>

</div>

<p >Bread is the staple <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food" title="Food" >food</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe" >Europe</a>, European-derived cultures such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas" title="Americas" >Americas</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East" >Middle East</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa" >North Africa</a>, as opposed to East Asia whose staple is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice" >rice</a>. Bread is usually made from a<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat" >wheat</a>-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour" title="Flour" >flour</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dough" title="Dough" >dough</a> that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oven" title="Oven" >oven</a>. Owing to its high levels of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten" title="Gluten" >gluten</a> (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_wheat" title="Common wheat" >common wheat</a> (also known as bread wheat) is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, but bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durum" title="Durum" >durum</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelt" title="Spelt" >spelt</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmer" title="Emmer" >emmer</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye" title="Rye" >rye</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley" title="Barley" >barley</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize" >maize</a> (corn), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oat" title="Oat" >oats</a>, usually, but not always, in combination with wheat flour. Spelt bread (Dinkelbrot) continues to be widely consumed in Germany, and emmer bread was a staple food in ancient Egypt. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_White" title="Canadian White" >Canadian bread</a> is known for its heartier consistency due to high protein levels in Canadian flour.</p>

<ul >

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_bread" title="White bread" >White bread</a> is made from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour" title="Flour" >flour</a> containing only the central core of the grain (endosperm).</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_bread" title="Brown bread" >Brown bread</a> is made with endosperm and 10% bran. It can also refer to white bread with added colouring (often caramel colouring) to make it brown; this is commonly labeled in America as wheat bread (as opposed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole-wheat_bread" title="Whole-wheat bread" class="mw-redirect" >whole-wheat bread</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-7" >[8]</a></sup></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholemeal_bread" title="Wholemeal bread" class="mw-redirect" >Wholemeal bread</a> contains the whole of the wheat grain (endosperm and bran). It is also referred to as "whole-grain" or "whole-wheat bread", especially in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" title="North America" >North America</a>.</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal_germ" title="Cereal germ" >Wheat germ</a> bread has added wheat germ for flavoring.</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Whole-grain_bread&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Whole-grain bread (page does not exist)" >Whole-grain bread</a> can refer to the same as wholemeal bread, or to white bread with added whole grains to increase its fibre content, as in "60% whole-grain bread".</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roti" title="Roti" >Roti</a> is a whole-wheat-based bread eaten in South Asia. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapatti" title="Chapatti" class="mw-redirect" >Chapatti</a> is a larger variant of roti. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naan" title="Naan" >Naan</a> is a leavened equivalent to these.</li>

<li >Granary bread is made from flaked wheat grains and white or brown flour. The standard malting process is modified to maximise the maltose or sugar content but minimise residual alpha amylase content. Other flavour components are imparted from partial fermentation due to the particular malting process used and to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maillard" title="Maillard" >Maillard</a> reactions on flaking and toasting.</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye_bread" title="Rye bread" >Rye bread</a> is made with flour from rye grain of varying levels. It is higher in fiber than many common types of bread and is often darker in color and stronger in flavor. It is popular in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia" >Scandinavia</a>, Germany, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland" title="Finland" >Finland</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_States" title="Baltic States" class="mw-redirect" >Baltic States</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia" >Russia</a>.</li>

<li >Unleavened bread or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matzo" title="Matzo" >matzo</a>, used for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish" title="Jewish" class="mw-redirect" >Jewish</a> feast of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover" title="Passover" >Passover</a>, does not include yeast, so it does not rise.</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough_bread" title="Sourdough bread" class="mw-redirect" >Sourdough bread</a> is made with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_starter" title="Bread starter" class="mw-redirect" >starter</a>.</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread" >Flatbread</a> is often simple, made with flour, water, and salt, and then formed into flattened dough; most are unleavened, made without yeast or sourdough culture, though some are made with yeast.</li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hempbread&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hempbread (page does not exist)" >Hempbread</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp" >Hemp</a> seeds do not mill into flour because of their high oil content (_30%). Hemp flour is the by-product after pressing the oil and milling the residue. Hemp flour doesn't rise, and is best mixed with other flours. A 3:1 ratio produces a hearty, heavy, nutritious loaf high in protein and essential fatty acids.</li>

</ul>

<h3 >Quick breads</h3>

<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" >Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread" >Quick bread</a></div>

<p >The term <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread" >quick bread</a> usually refers to a bread chemically leavened, usually with both baking powder and baking soda, and a balance of acidic ingredients and alkaline ingredients. Examples include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancakes" title="Pancakes" class="mw-redirect" >pancakes</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waffles" title="Waffles" class="mw-redirect" >waffles</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muffins" title="Muffins" class="mw-redirect" >muffins</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrot_cake" title="Carrot cake" >carrot cake</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_bread" title="Brown bread" >Boston brown bread</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zucchini" title="Zucchini" >zucchini</a> and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana_bread" title="Banana bread" >banana bread</a>.</p>

<h2 >Composition and chemistry</h2>

<h3 >Formulation</h3>

<p >The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Professional bakers use a system of percentages known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_percentage" title="Baker percentage" >baker's percentage</a> in their recipe formulations. They measure ingredients by weight instead of by volume, because measurement by weight is much more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, especially for the dry ingredients.

The amount of flour is always stated as 100%, and the amounts of the rest of the ingredients are expressed as a percent of that amount by weight. Common table bread in the U.S. uses about 50% <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water" >water</a>, resulting in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO<sub >2</sub> bubbles and a coarser bread crumb. One pound (450 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramme" title="Gramme" class="mw-redirect" >g</a>) of flour will yield a standard loaf of bread or two French loaves.

<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_propionate" title="Calcium propionate" class="mw-redirect" >Calcium propionate</a> is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds.</p>

<h3 >Flour</h3>

<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" >Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour" title="Flour" >Flour</a></div>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour" title="Flour" >Flour</a> is a product made from grain that has been ground to a powdery consistency. Flour provides the primary structure to the final baked bread. Commonly available flours are made from rye, barley, maize, and other grains, but wheat flour is most commonly used for breads. Each of these grains provides the starch and protein needed to form bread.

The quantity of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein" >protein</a> contained in the flour serves as the best indicator of the quality of the bread <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dough" title="Dough" >dough</a> and the finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, for quality bread a specialty bread flour, containing more protein, is recommended. If one uses a flour with a lower (9–11%) protein content to produce bread, a longer mixing time will be required to develop gluten strength properly. This extended mixing time leads to oxidization of the dough,<sup class="Template-Fact" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup> which gives the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers.

Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albumin" title="Albumin" >albumin</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globulin" title="Globulin" >globulin</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteose" title="Proteose" >proteoses</a>) and two water-insoluble protein groups (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutenin" title="Glutenin" >glutenin</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliadin" title="Gliadin" >gliadin</a>). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kneading" title="Kneading" >kneading</a>, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-knead_bread" title="No-knead bread" >no-knead bread</a>), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten" title="Gluten" >gluten</a>. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autolyse" title="Autolyse" class="mw-redirect" >autolyse</a>.</p>

<h3 >Liquids</h3>

<p >Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The volume of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of 1 part liquid to 3 parts flour is common for yeast breads, while recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of one part liquid to one part flour by volume. Instead of water, other types of liquids, such as dairy products, fruit juices, or beer, may be used; they contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water.</p>

<h3 >Leavening</h3>

A dough trough once used for leavening bread from Aberdour Castle, Fife, Scotland.</div>

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<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leavening" title="Leavening" class="mw-redirect" >Leavening</a> is the process of adding gas to a dough before or during baking to produce a lighter, more easily chewed bread. Most bread consumed in the West is leavened. Unleavened breads have symbolic importance in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism" >Judaism</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity" >Christianity</a>. Jews consume unleavened bread called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matzo" title="Matzo" >matzo</a>during <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover" title="Passover" >Passover</a>. Roman Catholic and some Protestant Christians consume unleavened bread during the Christian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy" >liturgy</a> when they celebrate the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist" >Eucharist</a>, a rite derived from the narrative of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Supper" title="Last Supper" >Last Supper</a> when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus" >Jesus</a> broke bread with his disciples, perhaps during a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder" >Passover Seder</a>. In contrast,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Christian" title="Orthodox Christian" class="mw-redirect" >Orthodox Christians</a> always use leavened bread during their liturgy.</p>

<h4 >Chemical</h4>

<p >A simple technique for leavening bread is the use of gas-producing chemicals. There are two common methods. The first is to use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_powder" title="Baking powder" >baking powder</a> or a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-rising_flour" title="Self-rising flour" class="mw-redirect" >self-rising flour</a> that includes baking powder. The second is to include an acidic ingredient such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buttermilk" title="Buttermilk" >buttermilk</a> and add <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_soda" title="Baking soda" class="mw-redirect" >baking soda</a>; the reaction of the acid with the soda produces gas.

Chemically leavened breads are called <i>quick breads</i> and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_bread" title="Soda bread" >soda breads</a></i>. This method is commonly used to make <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muffin" title="Muffin" >muffins</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancake" title="Pancake" >pancakes</a>, American-style <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscuits" title="Biscuits" class="mw-redirect" >biscuits</a>, and sweet breads such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana_bread" title="Banana bread" >banana bread</a>.</p>

<h4 >Yeast</h4>

<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" >Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast" >Yeast</a></div>

Dough before first rising.</div>

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Dough after first rising.</div>

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Dough after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofing_(baking_technique)" title="Proofing (baking technique)" >proofing</a> in tin, ready to bake.</div>

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<p >Many breads are leavened by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast" >yeast</a>. The yeast used for leavening bread is <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae" >Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>, the same species used for brewing alcoholic beverages. This yeast ferments <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrates" title="Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" >carbohydrates</a> in the flour, including any <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar" >sugar</a>, producing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide" >carbon dioxide</a>. Most bakers in the U.S. leaven their dough with commercially produced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast" >baker's yeast</a>. Baker's yeast has the advantage of producing uniform, quick, and reliable results, because it is obtained from a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_culture" title="Pure culture" class="mw-redirect" >pure culture</a>. Many artisan bakers produce their own yeast by preparing a growth culture that they then use in the making of bread. When this culture is kept in the right conditions, it will continue to grow and provide leavening for many years.

Both the baker's yeast and the sourdough methods of baking bread follow the same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening agent (baker's yeast or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough" >sourdough</a> starter). Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed dough is then allowed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofing_(baking_technique)" title="Proofing (baking technique)" >rise</a> one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often "punch down" the dough and let it rise again), then loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is baked in an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oven" title="Oven" >oven</a>.

Many breads are made from a "straight dough", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and the dough is baked after the rising time. Also, dough can be made using a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-ferment" title="Pre-ferment" >pre-ferment</a>", when the leavening is combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to ferment overnight. On the day of the baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and the rest of the process is the same as that for straight dough. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the highly reliable results of baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-ferments fall into one of three categories: "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poolish" title="Poolish" class="mw-redirect" >poolish</a>" or "pouliche", a loose-textured mixture composed of roughly equal amounts of flour and water (by weight); "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biga_(bread_baking)" title="Biga (bread baking)" >biga</a>", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of flour; and "pâte fermentée", which is simply a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch. Sourdough (also known as "levain" or "natural leaven") takes it a step further, creating a pre-ferment with flour and water that propagates naturally occurring yeast and bacteria (usually <i>Saccharomyces exiguus</i>, which is more acid-tolerant than <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, and various species of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactobacillus" title="Lactobacillus" >Lactobacillus</a></i>).</p>

<h4 >Sourdough</h4>

<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" >Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough" >Sourdough</a></div>

Sourdough loaves</div>

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<p >The sour taste of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough" >sourdoughs</a> actually comes not from the yeast, but from a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactobacillus" title="Lactobacillus" >lactobacillus</a>, with which the yeast lives in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis" >symbiosis</a>. The lactobacillus feeds on the byproducts of the yeast fermentation, and in turn makes the culture go sour by excreting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid" >lactic acid</a>, which protects it from spoiling (since most microbes are unable to survive in an acid environment). Formerly all yeast-leavened breads were sourdoughs, and the leavening process was not understood until the 19th century, when with the advance of microscopes scientists were able to discover the microbes that make the dough rise. Since then, strains of yeast have been selected and cultured mainly for reliability and quickness of fermentation. Billions of cells of these strains are then packaged and marketed as "baker's yeast". Bread made with baker's yeast is not sour because of the absence of the lactobacillus. Bakers around the world quickly embraced baker's yeast for it made baking simple and so allowed for more flexibility in the bakery's operations. It made baking quick as well, allowing bakeries to make fresh bread from scratch as often as three times a day. While European bakeries kept producing sourdough breads, in the U.S., sourdough baking was widely replaced by baker's yeast, and only recently has that country seen the rebirth of sourdough in artisan bakeries. According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alton_Brown" title="Alton Brown" >Alton Brown</a>, host of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Network" title="Food Network" >Food Network</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Eats" title="Good Eats" >Good Eats</a></i> television show, each region of the world has different strains of lactobacillus, so the flavor of the bread made from home starters is unique. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="San Francisco Bay Area" >San Francisco Bay Area</a> is especially famous for its sourdough breads.

Sourdough breads are most often made with a sourdough starter (not to be confused with the starter method discussed above). A sourdough starter is a culture of yeast and lactobacillus. In essence, it is a dough-like or pancake-batter-like flour–water mixture in which the yeast and lactobacilli live. A starter can be maintained indefinitely by periodically discarding a part of it and refreshing it by adding fresh flour and water. (When refrigerated, a starter can last weeks without needing to be "fed".) There are starters owned by bakeries and families that are several human generations old, much revered for creating a special taste or texture. Starters can be obtained by taking a piece of another starter and growing it, or they can be made from scratch. There are hobbyist groups on the web who will send their starter for a stamped, self-addressed envelope, and there are even mail-order companies that sell different starters from all over the world. An acquired starter has the advantage of being more proven and "established" (stable and reliable, resisting spoiling and behaving predictably) than from-scratch starters.

There are other ways of sourdough baking and culture maintenance. A more traditional one is the process that was followed by peasant families throughout Europe in past centuries. The family (usually the woman was in charge of breadmaking) would bake on a fixed schedule, perhaps once a week. The starter was saved from the previous week's dough. The starter was mixed with the new ingredients, the dough was left to rise, and then a piece of it was saved (to be the starter for next week's bread). The rest was formed into loaves that were marked with the family sign (this is where today's decorative <i>slashing</i> of bread loaves originates from) and taken to the communal oven to bake. These communal ovens over time evolved into what are known today as bakeries, when certain people specialized in bread baking, and with time enhanced the process so far as to be able to mass produce cheap bread for everyone in the world.</p>

<h4 >Steam</h4>

<p >The rapid expansion of steam produced during baking leavens the bread, which is as simple as it is unpredictable. The best known steam-leavened bread is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popover" title="Popover" >popover</a>. Steam-leavening is unpredictable since the steam is not produced until the bread is baked.

Steam leavening happens regardless of the rising agents (baking soda, yeast, baking powder, sour dough, beaten egg whites, etc.).</p>

<ul >

<li >The leavening agent either contains air bubbles or generates carbon dioxide.</li>

<li >The heat vaporises the water from the inner surface of the bubbles within the dough.</li>

<li >The steam expands and makes the bread rise.</li>

</ul>

<p >This is the main factor in the rise of bread once it has been put in the oven. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide" >CO<sub >2</sub></a> generation, on its own, is too small to account for the rise. Heat kills bacteria or yeast at an early stage, so the CO<sub >2</sub> generation is stopped.</p>

<h4 >Bacteria</h4>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_rising_bread" title="Salt rising bread" class="mw-redirect" >Salt rising bread</a> employs a form of bacterial leavening that does not require yeast. Although the leavening action is not always consistent, and requires close attention to the incubating conditions, this bread is making a comeback due to its unique cheese-like flavor and fine texture.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-8" >[9]</a></sup></p>

<h4 >Aeration</h4>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerated_bread" title="Aerated bread" class="mw-redirect" >Aerated bread</a> is leavened by carbon dioxide being forced into dough under pressure. The technique is no longer in common use, but from the mid 19th to 20th centuries bread made this way was somewhat popular in the United Kingdom, made by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerated_Bread_Company" title="Aerated Bread Company" >Aerated Bread Company</a> and sold in its high-street <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerated_Bread_Company#Tea_shops_and_early_women.27s_issues" title="Aerated Bread Company" >tearooms</a>.</p>

<h3 >Fats or shortenings</h3>

<p >Fats such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs affects the development of gluten in breads by coating and lubricating the individual strands of protein and also helps to hold the structure together. If too much fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect will cause the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the concentration that will produce the greatest leavening action.<sup class="Template-Fact" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup> In addition to their effects on leavening, fats also serve to tenderize the breads they are used in and also help to keep the bread fresh longer after baking.</p>

<h3 >Bread improvers</h3>

<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" >Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_improver" title="Bread improver" >Bread improver</a></div>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_improver" title="Bread improver" >Bread improvers</a> are often used in producing commercial breads to reduce the time needed for rising and to improve texture and volume. Chemical substances commonly used as bread improvers include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascorbic_acid" title="Ascorbic acid" >ascorbic acid</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloride" title="Hydrochloride" >hydrochloride</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_metabisulfate" title="Sodium metabisulfate" class="mw-redirect" >sodium metabisulfate</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride" >ammonium chloride</a>, various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate" >phosphates</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase" >amylase</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease" title="Protease" >protease</a>.

Salt is one of the most common additives used in production. In addition to enhancing flavor and restricting yeast activity, salt affects the crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-9" >[10]</a></sup> the gluten. Some artisan bakers are foregoing early addition of salt to the dough, and are waiting until after a 20-minute "rest". This is known as an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autolyse" title="Autolyse" class="mw-redirect" >autolyse</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-10" >[11]</a></sup> and is done with both refined and whole-grain flours.</p>

<h2 >Bread baking</h2>

<p >This is a visual representation of a step-by-step guide of the making of bread.</p>

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<h2 >Serving and consumption</h2>

<p >Bread can be served at any <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature" >temperature</a>; once baked, it can subsequently be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast" title="Toast" >toasted</a>. It is most commonly eaten with the hands, either by itself or as a carrier for other foods. Bread can be dipped into liquids such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravy" title="Gravy" >gravy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil" >olive oil</a>, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soup" title="Soup" >soup</a>; it can be topped with various sweet and savory spreads, or used to make <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandwich" title="Sandwich" >sandwiches</a> containing myriad varieties of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat" title="Meat" >meats</a>, cheeses, vegetables, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condiments" title="Condiments" class="mw-redirect" >condiments</a>.</p>

<h2 >Bread crust</h2>

<p >The bread crust is formed from surface dough during the cooking process. It is hardened and browned through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction" >Maillard reaction</a> using the sugars and amino acids and the intense heat at the bread surface. The nature of a bread's crust differs depending on the type of bread and the way it is baked. Commercial bread is baked using jets that direct steam toward the bread to help produce a desirable crust.

The crust of most breads is less soft, and more complexly and intensely flavored, than the rest, and judgments vary among individuals and cultures as to whether it is therefore the less palatable or the more flavorful part of a particular style of bread. Some manufacturers, including as of September 2009 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Lee_(brand)" title="Sara Lee (brand)" class="mw-redirect" >Sara Lee</a>, market traditional and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustless_bread" title="Crustless bread" >crustless breads</a>.

The first and last slices of a loaf (or a slice with a high <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratio" title="Ratio" >ratio</a> of crust-area to volume compared to others of the same loaf) are sometimes referred to as the heel or the crust of the loaf.</p>

<h2 >Breads in different cultures</h2>

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<td class="mbox-text" >This section <b>needs additional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" >citations</a> for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability" >verification</a></b>. Please help <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bread&action=edit" >improve this article</a> by adding citations to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources" >reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation_needed" title="Template:Citation needed" >challenged</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability" >removed</a>. <small><i>(June 2011)</i></small></td>

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<p >As a simple, cheap, and adaptable type of food, bread is often used as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synecdoche" title="Synecdoche" >synecdoche</a> for food in general in some languages and dialects, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language" >Greek</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language" >Punjabi</a>. There are many variations on the basic recipe of bread worldwide, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizza" title="Pizza" >pizza</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapati" title="Chapati" >chapatis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortilla" title="Tortilla" >tortillas</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocadillo" title="Bocadillo" >bocadillo</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baguette" title="Baguette" >baguettes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brioche" title="Brioche" >brioche</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pita" title="Pita" >pitas</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavash" title="Lavash" >lavash</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscuit" title="Biscuit" >biscuits</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretzel" title="Pretzel" >pretzels</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naan" title="Naan" >naan</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagel" title="Bagel" >bagels</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puri_(food)" title="Puri (food)" >puris</a>, and many others. There are different types of traditional "cheese breads" in many countries, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil" >Brazil</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia" >Colombia</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy" >Italy</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia" >Russia</a>.</p>

<h3 >Europe</h3>

<p >Germany prides itself on having the largest variety of breads worldwide. More than 300 basic kinds of bread are produced with more than 1,000 types of small bread-rolls and pastries. It has been estimated that the basic kinds of bread are so widely varied by more than 16,000 local bakeries that more than 1,000 different breads have been presented at a 2005 Cologne bread show.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-11" >[12]</a></sup> Germans are worldwide the biggest consumers (per capita) of bread, followed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile" title="Chile" >Chile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-12" >[13]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement" >dubious</a> – <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Bread#Dubious" title="Talk:Bread" >discuss</a></i>]</sup>

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia" >Scandinavian</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries" >Nordic countries</a>, four grain types dominated in the prehistoric era (before 1000 AD). Barley and rye are the oldest; wheat and oats are more recent. During the Iron Age (500 AD–1050 AD), rye became the most commonly used grain, followed by barley and oats. Scandinavian soldiers learned baking techniques while working as mercenaries in the Roman army (200–400 AD). They subsequently took the technique home with them as a way to show that they had been employed in high-status work on the continent. Early Christian traditions promoted an interest in bread. Rye was also the most commonly used grain for bread up until the beginning of the 20th century. Today, older grain types such as emmer and spelt are once again being cultivated and new bread types are being developed from these grains. Germany has influenced most of the bread types in the Nordic countries. In the eastern part of Finland, there is a cultural link to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia" >Russia</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peoples" title="Slavic peoples" >Slavic</a> bread traditions.

In the late 19th century, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark" >Danish</a> bakers in the larger towns baked fresh bread in the morning. This bread, called <i>morgenbrød</i>, made primarily from wheat and intended for the rising bourgeoisie, was baked into various shapes and with a variety of seasonings. Since then, this freshly baked bread has been produced in every Danish baker's shop, along with a variety of other breads. This decentralised form of baking bread alongside the more modern industrialised production of bread seems to be characteristic of the Danish bread sector. Consumption, to a great extent, has switched from rye bread to wheat bread.

<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland" title="Finland" >Finland</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia" >Russia</a> both have dark sourdough breads made of rye. Traditional Finnish rye bread is disc-shaped, with a hole in the center for easier storing. These breads have a rougher composition and a stronger taste than wheat bread, and can thus be stored for longer periods of time. Some families have leaven cultures, handed down from one generation to the next, that they use for baking these breads. Bread is made from all four of the cereals grown in Finland: wheat, rye, barley and oats; these are usually ground into various grades. Rye bread can be either light or dark in colour, depending on the type of flour mixture used. A few wheat breads are still made in Finland, although most are simple buns or loaves of sliced or unsliced bread. Some of the breads are thinner, multigrain types, such as elongated <i>sekaleipä</i>. <i>Vesirinkeli</i> (water rings) are small, almost tasteless rings of yeast-leavened wheat bread, which resemble bagels. The potato, although a late introduction to Finland in the early 19th century, features heavily in food culture and has found its way into many kinds of bread.

With the settlement of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland" >Iceland</a> about 800–900 AD, grain, in the form of barley, was brought, cultivated and used for bread and porridge. Grain cultivation is thought to have been abandoned before 1600 due to harsher climatic conditions, and, subsequent to this, most grains such as barley and rye were imported. The scarcity of grain was overcome in different ways in different parts of the country. In some areas, grain was made to go further using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmaria_palmata" title="Palmaria palmata" >dulse</a> (<i>Palmaria palmata</i>; in Icelandic, <i>söl</i>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland_moss" title="Iceland moss" >Iceland moss</a> (<i>Cetraria islandica</i>; in Icelandic, <i>fjallagrös</i>) or Irish moss (<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrus_crispus" title="Chondrus crispus" >Chondrus crispus</a></i>; in Icelandic, <i>fjörugrös</i>) in compotes and breads. It was not until the 18th century that it became common practice to make leavened rye breads; sourdough was mostly used. Rye breads baked in hot springs are a popular item today, and are served for local consumption as well as for tourists. In general, stock fish (<i>harðfiskur</i>) was served as a bread substitute, eaten with butter on the side with almost every meal. Today, it is a popular snack that has found a new target group within the sports food market because of its high-protein and favourable amino acid content. Most types of breads available in other Western countries are now also available in Iceland, either baked in Iceland or imported. Everyday bread is mostly made by industrial bakeries or at the local bakery. Of the bread types currently available,<i>flatbrauð</i> (flatbread) and <i>laufabrauð</i> (leaf bread) have the longest history.

Many new types of bread have reached the markets in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway" title="Norway" >Norway</a> in recent years. A high percentage of people reported regularly eating bread types such as spelt, speciality, gourmet, and fibre/bran bread, as well as ciabattas and baguettes, although very few reported doing so on a daily basis.<sup class="Template-Fact" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Norwegian bakers now have competition from abroad. The wholegrain bread from local bakers must give way to huge lorry loads of baguettes and frozen dough offering cheaper products. Flatbread is still a very popular bread type.

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden" >Sweden</a>, during the transition to a modern urban and industrialised society in the 19th century, bread types changed when large industrial bakeries introduced new soft bread. From the early 1920s, these were often sweetened. From then on, bread was bought from stores and bakeries, rather than baked at home, as had previously been the case. Regional variation decreased due to the transportation and marketing of bread as a national product. The consumption of bread products of various kinds has increased since the 1990s, and wholegrain bread and wheat bread are the most popular. Many older bread types still exist alongside the newer varieties.

There is a wide variety of traditional breads in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain" >Great Britain</a>, often baked in a rectangular tin. One such type of traditional thick, flat, round loaf from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_East_England" title="North East England" >North East England</a> is called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stottie_cake" title="Stottie cake" >stottie cake</a>. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland" >Scotland</a> another form of bread called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_loaf" title="Plain loaf" >plain bread</a> is also consumed. These loaves are noticeably taller and thinner, with burned crusts at only the top and bottom of the loaf, and with a much firmer texture than English and American pan bread.

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland" >Ireland</a> it is traditionally held that the end of a loaf of bread (the "heel" or, rarely, "hilt"<sup class="Template-Fact" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup> of the loaf) is the best part of the loaf. Other stories and myths surround this piece of the bread in Irish mythology. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_soda_bread" title="Irish soda bread" class="mw-redirect" >Irish soda bread</a>, developed to make the most of the soft wheat grown in Ireland, is unusual for a European bread in that it is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread" >quick bread</a>, using the reaction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buttermilk" title="Buttermilk" >buttermilk</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking_soda" title="Baking soda" class="mw-redirect" >baking soda</a> rather than yeast to rise. Another traditional Irish bread is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barmbrack" title="Barmbrack" >barmbrack</a>, a yeasted bread with added sultanas and raisins, customarily consumed at Halloween. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_bread" title="Potato bread" >Potato bread</a> is also traditional in Ireland, especially in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster" title="Ulster" >Ulster</a>.

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France" >France</a>, pan bread is known as <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pullman_loaf" title="Pullman loaf" >pain de mie</a></i> and is used only for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast" title="Toast" >toast</a> or for making <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuffing" title="Stuffing" >stuffing</a>; standard bread (in the form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baguette" title="Baguette" >baguettes</a> or thicker breads) has a thick crust and often has large bubbles of air inside. It is often baked three times daily and is sold totally unwrapped for a crisp crust. Some fancy breads contain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut" >walnuts</a> or are encrusted with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppy_seed" title="Poppy seed" >poppy seeds</a>.

Because of its long history of regional political division, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy" >Italy</a> specializes in many different kinds of bread, reflecting its great regional variation and widely different breadmaking recipes and traditions. In general, rolls are typical of the northern regions, while large loaves are typical of the southern regions. Bread often has a small quantity of olive oil, butter, or rendered lard mixed into the dough to make it softer and more palatable. Traditional rustic breads include <i>sfilatino imbottito</i> (a stuffed bread roll) and <i>pizza bianca</i> (a flat white bread).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-13" >[14]</a></sup> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focaccia" title="Focaccia" >Focaccia</a></i> is quite popular in Italy and southern France. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provence" title="Provence" >Provence</a>, it is known as <i>fougasse</i> or <i>fouace</i>, with the former becoming increasingly common.<sup class="Template-Fact" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Fougasse can now be bought all over France. It is usually seasoned with olive oil and herbs, and often either topped with cheese or stuffed with meat or vegetables. Focaccia doughs are similar in style and texture to pizza doughs.

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" title="Spain" >Spain</a>, bread is called <i>pan</i>. The traditional Spanish <i>pan</i> is a long loaf of bread, similar to the French baguette but wider. One can buy it freshly made every morning in the traditional bakeries, where there is a large assortment of bread. A smaller version is known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocadillo" title="Bocadillo" >bocadillo</a>, an iconic piece of the Hispanic cuisine. In Spain, especially in the Mediterranean area, there have been guilds of bakers for over 750 years. The bakers guild in Barcelona was founded in 1200 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-14" >[15]</a></sup> There is a region called Tierra del Pan ("Land of the Bread"), located in the province of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamora_(province)" title="Zamora (province)" class="mw-redirect" >Zamora</a>, where economy was in the past joined to this activity.</p>

<h3 >Latin America</h3>

<p >In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico" >Mexico</a>, bread is called <i>pan</i> . Although corn <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortillas" title="Tortillas" class="mw-redirect" >tortillas</a> are the staple bread in most of Mexico, bread rolls in many varieties are an important daily food for city dwellers. Popular breads in Mexico include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolillo" title="Bolillo" >bolillo</a> roll and <i>pan dulce</i>. There are many varieties, about 1,000.<sup class="Template-Fact" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup><i>Pan dulce</i>, which is Spanish for "sweet bread", is eaten primarily at breakfast.

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru" title="Peru" >Peru</a>, <i>pan</i> has many variations due to the diversity of Peruvian cuisine. People usually eat <i>pan de piso</i> and <i>pan serrano</i>. There are also some kinds of bread made of potatoes; these are currently popular in the Andes. <i>Bizcochos</i> are sweet bread usually eaten with some butter and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_chocolate" title="Hot chocolate" >hot chocolate</a>. A dough made with cooked pumpkin or squash, often shaped and fried into doughnuts and served with a sweet fruity dipping sauce, is a traditional favorite. Bread is an ingredient of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sopas_de_ajo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sopas de ajo (page does not exist)" >sopas de ajo</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazpacho" title="Gazpacho" >gazpacho</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmorejo" title="Salmorejo" >salmorejo</a>.</p>

<h3 >North Africa</h3>

<p >In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco" >Morocco</a> and western North Africa a round bread that is roughly four inches (10 cm) tall is used to accompany most of the watery cuisine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify" >clarification needed</a></i>]</sup> Also consumed is a thick and chewy fried bread that is smothered in oil beforehand. The <i>rghifa</i> bread is a staple in the food of Morocco and consists of several layers of lightly cooked bread.

In Ethiopia in east North Africa, a bread called <i>injera</i> is made from a grain called <i>teff</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-15" >[16]</a></sup> This is a wide, flat, circular bread that is also used as a utensil to pick up food. <i>Teff</i> has no gluten.</p>

Bakers preparing bread. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van,_Turkey" title="Van, Turkey" >Van, Turkey</a>. 1973.</div>

</div>

<p >The traditional bread in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China" >China</a> is <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantou" title="Mantou" >mantou</a></i>. It is made by steaming or deep-frying dough made from wheat flour. In Northern China and northern central China, <i>mantou</i> is often eaten as an alternative staple to rice. Steamed <i>mantou</i> is similar to Western white bread, but since it is not baked it does not have a brown outer crust. <i>Mantou</i> that have a filling such as meat or vegetables (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Char_siu_bao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Char siu bao (page does not exist)" >char siu bao</a>, for example) are called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baozi" title="Baozi" >baozi</a></i>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyang" title="Kompyang" >kompyang</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzhou" title="Fuzhou" >Fuzhou</a> is an example of a Chinese bread baked in a clay oven.

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia" >South Asia</a> (including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India" >India</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan" >Pakistan</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East" >Middle East</a>), <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roti" title="Roti" >roti</a></i> or <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapati" title="Chapati" >chapati</a></i>, types of unleavened flatbreads usually made from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole-wheat_flour" title="Whole-wheat flour" >whole-wheat flour</a> and baked on a hot iron griddle called a <i>tava</i>, form the mainstay of the people's diet. <i>Rotis</i> and <i>naans</i> are usually served with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry" title="Curry" >curry</a> throughout the region. A variant called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makki_di_roti" title="Makki di roti" >makki di roti</a></i> uses <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize" >maize</a> flour rather than white flour. Another variant is <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puri_(food)" title="Puri (food)" >puri</a></i>, a thin flat bread that is fried rather than baked and puffs up while cooked. <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratha" title="Paratha" >Paratha</a></i> is another variation on <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roti" title="Roti" >roti</a></i>.<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naan" title="Naan" >Naan</a></i> (leavened wholewheat bread) is baked in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandoor" title="Tandoor" >tandoor</a> or clay oven and is rarely prepared at home. White and brown breads are also very common, but not as common as <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roti" title="Roti" >roti</a></i>.

In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines" >Philippines</a>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandesal" title="Pandesal" >pandesal</a></i> (or <b>pan de sal</b>, meaning <i>bread of salt</i> or <i>salt bread</i>) is a rounded bread usually eaten by Filipinos during breakfast. The Philippines also produces a cheap generic white bread called <i>Pinoy Tasty</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-16" >[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference" ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_note-17" >[18]</a></sup></p>

<h3 >North America</h3>

<p >Traditional breads in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States" >United States</a> include cornbreads and various quick breads, such as biscuits. Cornbread is made from cornmeal and can differ significantly in taste and texture from region to region. In general, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States" >South</a> prefers white cornmeal with little to no wheat flour or sweeteners added. It is traditionally baked in a cast-iron skillet and ideally has a crunchy outside and moist inside. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States" >North</a> usually prefers yellow cornmeal with sometimes as much as half wheat flour in its composition, as well as sugar, honey, or maple syrup. This results in a bread that is softer and sweeter than its southern counterpart. Homemade wheat breads are made in a rectangular tin similar to those in the United Kingdom. Rolls, made from wheat flour and yeast, are another popular and traditional bread, eaten with the dinner meal. Sourdough biscuits are traditional "cowboy food" in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States" >West</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="San Francisco Bay Area" >San Francisco Bay Area</a> is known for its crusty <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough" >sourdough</a>. Spoon bread, also called batter bread or egg bread, is made of cornmeal with or without added rice and hominy, and is mixed with milk, eggs, shortening and leavening to such a consistency that it must be served from the baking dish with a spoon. This is popular chiefly in the South. Up until the 20th century (and even later in certain regions), any flour other than cornmeal was considered a luxury; this would explain the greater variety in cornbread types compared to that of wheat breads. In terms of commercial manufacture, the most popular bread has been a soft-textured type with a thin crust that is usually made with milk and is slightly sweet; this is the type that is generally sold ready-sliced in packages. It is usually eaten with the crust, but some eaters or preparers may remove the crust due to a personal preference or style of serving, as with finger sandwiches served with<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afternoon_tea" title="Afternoon tea" class="mw-redirect" >afternoon tea</a>. Some of the softest bread, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_Bread" title="Wonder Bread" >Wonder Bread</a>, is referred to as "balloon bread". Though white "sandwich bread" is the most popular, Americans are trending toward more <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisanal" title="Artisanal" class="mw-redirect" >artisanal</a> breads. Different regions of the country feature certain ethnic bread varieties including the French <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baguette" title="Baguette" >baguette</a>, the Ashkenazi Jewish <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagel" title="Bagel" >bagel</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scali_bread" title="Scali bread" >scali</a> (an Italian-style bread made in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England" title="New England" >New England</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States" >Native American</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frybread" title="Frybread" >frybread</a> (a product of hardship, developed during the Indian resettlements of the 19th century), and Jewish rye, a bread commonly associated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delicatessen" title="Delicatessen" >delicatessen</a>cuisine.</p>

<h3 >Influence of particular religions</h3>

<p >Christian traditional societies (usually in poor communities) used to respect bread since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus" >Jesus</a> symbolised his body with it. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross" title="Sign of the cross" class="mw-redirect" >sign of the cross</a> was performed with the knife on the bread's surface, before the loaf was cut. Sometimes it was considered a sin to desecrate bread (e.g., throw it away).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research" >original research?</a></i>]</sup>

<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine" >Jews</a> have traditionally baked <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challah" title="Challah" >challah</a></i>, a type of egg bread with a thin, hard crust and a soft, well-leavened center. It is made by wrapping plaits of dough and then lightly baking them in an oven. <i>Challah</i> is sometimes sweetened using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey" title="Honey" >honey</a> and sometimes includes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raisin" title="Raisin" >raisins</a>. During<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover" title="Passover" >Passover</a>, unleavened bread, in the form of various types of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matzo" title="Matzo" >matzo</a></i>, is required due to the Biblical injunction to avoid any form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaven" title="Leaven" class="mw-redirect" >leaven</a> during this time of year. There is some debate within the Jewish community as to whether dairy products are allowed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosher" title="Kosher" class="mw-redirect" >kosher</a> bread; some authorities maintain that bread must be strictly <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareve" title="Pareve" class="mw-redirect" >pareve</a></i> to avoid combining meat and dairy in the same meal, while others feel it is acceptable as long as a sign of some sort (usually a different loaf shape, but others are known) is baked into the loaf to distinguish it from pareve bread.

In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca" >Wicca</a>, bread and wine are often consumed together during rituals to remind followers that the gods provide everything needed to sustain humanity.<sup class="Template-Fact" >[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

<h2 >Gallery</h2>

<div >

</div>

<p >Home made bread</p>

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<p >Selection of bread in a Swiss shop</p>

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<p >Challah</p>

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<p >Four loaves</p>

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<p >Pain au levain, a French bread</p>

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<p >Breads and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_roll" title="Bread roll" >bread rolls</a> at a bakery</p>

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<p >Tin <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_bread" title="Vienna bread" >Vienna bread</a></p>

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<p >Bread in a traditional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oven" title="Oven" >oven</a></p>

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<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-sliced_bread" title="Pre-sliced bread" class="mw-redirect" >Pre-sliced bread</a></p>

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<div >

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<p >Bread rolls</p>

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<p >A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal_grain" title="Cereal grain" class="mw-redirect" >cereal grain</a></p>

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</li>

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<p >Close up of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough" >sourdough</a>bread slice</p>

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</li>

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<p >A selection of breads</p>

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<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustless_bread" title="Crustless bread" >Crustless bread</a> covered by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bread_mold" title="Black bread mold" >mold</a></p>

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<p >Homemade <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye_bread" title="Rye bread" >rye bread</a></p>

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<div >

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<p >A variety of breads at the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudin_Bakery" title="Boudin Bakery" >Boudin Bakery</a>.</p>

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</li>

<div >

</div>

<p >Sourdough breads like this <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baguette" title="Baguette" >baguette</a> (left) and roundbread begin with a starter passed down from excess batter from a previous loaf</p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

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<p >A chef in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India" >India</a> prepares<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumali_Roti" title="Rumali Roti" >Rumali Roti</a></i></p>

</div>

</li>

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<p >Bread-seller in front of a bakery, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus" >Damascus</a>, 1910.</p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

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<p >A variety of bread in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroud" title="Stroud" >Stroud</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmers%27_market" title="Farmers' market" >Farmers' market</a>, England</p>

</div>

</li>

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<p >Slice of French bread</p>

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</li>

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<p >Selection of bread in a German bakery</p>

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<p >A festive loaf (Pogacha) from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria" >Bulgaria</a></p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p >Bread shop, northern Italy, beginning of 15th century</p>

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</li>

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</div>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizza" title="Pizza" >Pizza</a> with cheese and tomato topping</p>

</div>

</li>

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</div>

<p >Two half-slices of bread, one toasted</p>

</div>

</li>

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</div>

<p >A slice of pumpernickel rye bread</p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p >Potato bread, in which potatoes replace wheat flour</p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_roll" title="Bread roll" >Bread rolls</a> in a basket</p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p >A bacon butty with extra-thick <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliced_bread" title="Sliced bread" >sliced bread</a></p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_crumbs" title="Bread crumbs" >Bread crumbs</a> in a box and on a plate</p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p >Pumpkin bread, a sweet<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread" >quick bread</a></p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p >Two slices of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fried_bread" title="Fried bread" >fried bread</a></p>

</div>

</li>

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</div>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panettone" title="Panettone" >Panettone</a>, a slightly sweet bread with peel and raisins (Italian)</p>

</div>

</li>

<div >

</div>

<p ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%27ak" title="Ka'ak" >Ka'ak</a> bread rings sprinkled with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seed" title="Sesame seed" class="mw-redirect" >sesame seeds</a></p>

</div>

</li>

</ul>

</center>

<ul >

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_clip" title="Bread clip" >Bread clip</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culinary_arts" title="Culinary arts" class="mw-redirect" >Culinary arts</a></li>

</ul>

<dl >

<dt >Breadmaking ingredients, techniques and tools</dt>

</dl>

<ul >

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_percentage" title="Baker percentage" >Baker percentage</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast" >Baker's yeast</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_machine" title="Bread machine" >Bread machine</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_pan" title="Bread pan" >Bread pan</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread" >Quick bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliced_bread" title="Sliced bread" >Sliced bread</a></li>

</ul>

<dl >

<dt >Culinary uses</dt>

</dl>

<ul >

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_Bowl" title="Bread Bowl" class="mw-redirect" >Bread Bowl</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadcrumbs" title="Breadcrumbs" class="mw-redirect" >Breadcrumbs</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breading" title="Breading" >Breading</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croutons" title="Croutons" class="mw-redirect" >Croutons</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melba_toast" title="Melba toast" >Melba toast</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuffing" title="Stuffing" >Stuffing</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast" title="Toast" >Toast</a></li>

</ul>

<dl >

<dt >Types of bread</dt>

</dl>

<tr>

<ul >

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadama_bread" title="Anadama bread" >Anadama bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer_bread" title="Beer bread" >Beer bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscuit" title="Biscuit" >Biscuit</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_roll" title="Bread roll" >Bread roll</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brioche" title="Brioche" >Brioche</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_bread" title="Brown bread" >Brown bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_bread" title="Bush bread" >Bush bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_White" title="Canadian White" >Canadian White</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardamom_bread" title="Cardamom bread" >Cardamom bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challah" title="Challah" >Challah</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapati" title="Chapati" >Chapati</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornbread" title="Cornbread" >Cornbread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottage_loaf" title="Cottage loaf" >Cottage loaf</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damper_(food)" title="Damper (food)" >Damper</a></li>

</ul>

</td>

<ul >

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread" >Flatbread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focaccia" title="Focaccia" >Focaccia</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_bread" title="Indian bread" >Indian bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_soda_bread" title="Irish soda bread" class="mw-redirect" >Irish soda bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khaboos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khaboos (page does not exist)" >Khaboos</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavash" title="Lavash" >Lavash</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantou" title="Mantou" >Mantou</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matzo" title="Matzo" >Matzo</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melonpan" title="Melonpan" >Melonpan</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkey_bread" title="Monkey bread" >Monkey bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandoro" title="Pandoro" >Pandoro</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratha" title="Paratha" >Paratha</a></li>

</ul>

</td>

<ul >

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_sweet_bread" title="Portuguese sweet bread" >Portuguese sweet bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_bread" title="Potato bread" >Potato bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proja" title="Proja" >Proja</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumpernickel" title="Pumpernickel" >Pumpernickel</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_bread" title="Rice bread" >Rice bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye_bread" title="Rye bread" >Rye bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_cake" title="Seed cake" >Seed cakes</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_toast" title="Texas toast" >Texas toast</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger_bread" title="Tiger bread" >Tiger bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortilla" title="Tortilla" >Tortilla</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_bread" title="White bread" >White bread</a></li>

<li ><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole-wheat_bread" title="Whole-wheat bread" class="mw-redirect" >Whole-wheat bread</a></li>

</ul>

</td>

</tr>

</tbody></table>

<h2 >References</h2>

<li id="cite_note-0" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-0" >^{</a></b> }"Slavic langues retain many Gothic words, reflecting cultural borrowings: thus <i>khleb</i>, (bread) from an earlier <i>khleiba</i> from Gothic <i>hlaifs</i>, or, rather, from the more ancient form <i>hlaibhaz</i>, which meant 'bread baked in an oven (and, probably, made with yeast), as different from a l-iepekha, which was a flat cake moulded (liepiti) from paste, and baked on charcoal. [the same nominal stem *hlaibh- has been preserved in modern English as loaf; cf. Lord, from acient <i>hlafweard</i> bread-keeper] "[in:] Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov. The paths of history. s. 79</li>

<li id="cite_note-1" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-1" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news/2010-10-prehistoric-ate-flatbread-years.html" >"Prehistoric man ate flatbread 30,000 years ago: study"</a>. <i>Physorg.com</i>. AFP. October 19, 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2010.</li>

<li id="cite_note-2" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-2" >^{</a></b> McGee}, p. 517</li>

<li id="cite_note-3" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-3" >^{</a></b>&nbsp};Tannahill p. 68-69</li>

<li id="cite_note-4" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-4" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.scs.fsu.edu/_{burkardt/fun/wordplay/rhyme_slang.html}" >Cockney Rhyming Slang</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-5" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-5" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia/38557/The-Civil-War-and-War-Communism-1918-21" >"Russia. Britannica"</a>. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-06-03.</li>

<li id="cite_note-6" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-6" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sparknotes.com/biography/lenin/section6.rhtml" >"Vladimir Lenin: From March to October. SparkNotes"</a>. Sparknotes.com. Retrieved 2010-06-03.</li>

<li id="cite_note-7" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-7" >^{</a></b>&nbsp};CBS Interactive Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/02/08/earlyshow/saturday/main3808472.shtml" >White Bread in Wheat Bread's Clothing</a> CBS Early Show. Retrieved June 14, 2008.</li>

<li id="cite_note-8" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-8" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.comcast.net/_petsonk/" >"Susan R. Brown’s Salt Rising Bread Project"</a>. Home.comcast.net. Retrieved 2010-06-03.</li>

<li id="cite_note-9" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-9" >^{</a></b>&nbsp};Nancy Silverton, Breads From The La Brea Bakery (1996), Villard</li>

<li id="cite_note-10" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-10" >^{</a></b>&nbsp};Peter Reinhart, The Bread Baker's Apprentice: Mastering the Art of Extraordinary Bread (2001), Ten Speed Press</li>

<li id="cite_note-11" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-11" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20080627014345/http://www.biv-rheinland.de/Brotweltrekord/BWR_WDR-TV_140905.pdf" >"Bread World Record (in German)"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biv-rheinland.de/Brotweltrekord/BWR_WDR-TV_140905.pdf" >the original</a> on 2008-06-27. Retrieved 2010-06-03.</li>

<li id="cite_note-14" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-14" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/averroes/vertie/motivadores/histopan.htm" >Junta de Andalucia - Histopan</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-15" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-15" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/recipe-injera.html" >http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/recipe-injera.html</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-16" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-16" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/lifestyle/10/06/10/pinoy-tasty-arrives" >"Pinoy Tasty arrives"</a>. <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABS-CBN_News_and_Current_Affairs" title="ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs" >ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs</a></i>. 2010-10-06. Retrieved 2011-03-15.</li>

<li id="cite_note-17" ><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadmaking#cite_ref-17" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gmanews.tv/story/202660/pinoy-tasty-generic-bread-debuts-at-p36-per-loaf" >"Pinoy Tasty, generic bread, debuts at P36 per loaf"</a>. <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMA_News_and_Public_Affairs" title="GMA News and Public Affairs" >GMA News and Public Affairs</a></i>. 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2011-03-15.</li>

</ol>

</div>

<h3 >Bibliography</h3>

<ul >

<li >Kaplan, Steven Laurence: <i>Good Bread is Back: A Contemporary History of French Bread, the Way It Is Made, and the People Who Make It</i>. Durham/ London: Duke University Press, 2006. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822338335" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" >ISBN 9780822338335</a></li>

<li >Jacob, Heinrich Eduard: <i>Six Thousand Years of Bread. Its Holy and Unholy History</i>. Garden City / New York: Doubleday, Doran and Comp., 1944. New 1997: New York: Lyons & Burford, Publishers (Foreword by Lynn Alley), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558215751" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" >ISBN 1-55821-575-1</a> &lt</li>

<li >Spiekermann, Uwe: <i>Brown Bread for Victory: German and British Wholemeal Politics in the Inter-War Period</i>, in: Trentmann, Frank and Just, Flemming (ed.): <i>Food and Conflict in Europe in the Age of the Two World Wars</i>. Basingstoke / New York: Palgrave, 2006, pp. 143–171,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1403986843" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" >ISBN 1-4039-8684-3</a></li>

<li >Tannahill, Reay (1973). <i>Food in History</i>. Stein and Day. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8128-1437-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8128-1437-1" >0-8128-1437-1</a>.</li>

<li >Cunningham, Marion (1990). <i>The Fannie Farmer cookbook</i>. illustrated by Lauren Jarrett (13th edition ed.). New York: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf" >Alfred A. Knopf</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-56788-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-56788-9" >0-394-56788-9</a>.</li>

<li >Trager, James (1995). <i>The food chronology: a food lover's compendium of events and anecdotes from prehistory to the present</i>. Henry Holt.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-3389-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-3389-0" >0-8050-3389-0</a>.</li>

<li >Davidson, Alan (1999). <i>The Oxford Companion to Food</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-211579-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-211579-0" >0-19-211579-0</a>.</li>

<li >McGee, Harold (2004). <i>On food and cooking</i>. Scribner. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80001-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80001-2" >0-684-80001-2</a>.</li>

<li >D. Samuel (2000). "Brewing and baking". <i>Ancient Egyptian materials and technology. Eds: P.T. Nicholson & I. Shaw. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</i>. pp. 537–576. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521452570" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" >ISBN 0-521-45257-0</a>.</li>

<li >Pyler, E. J. (1988). <i>Baking Science & Technology 3rd Ed. vols. I & II</i>. Sosland Publishing Company. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-929005-02-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-929005-02-3" >0-929005-02-3</a>.</li>

</ul>