Aspartame

Aspartame (APM; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English" >/</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English" >ˈæspərteɪm</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English" >/</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English" >/</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English" >əˈspɑrteɪm</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English" >/</a>) is an artificial, non-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharide" title="Saccharide" class="mw-redirect" >saccharide</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweeteners" title="Sweeteners" class="mw-redirect" >sweetener</a> used as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_substitute" title="Sugar substitute" >sugar substitute</a> in some foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is codified as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number" title="E number" >E951</a>. Aspartame is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl" title="Methyl" class="mw-redirect" >methyl</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester" title="Ester" >ester</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid" >aspartic acid</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine" >phenylalanine</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipeptide" title="Dipeptide" >dipeptide</a>.

It was first sold under the brand name <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NutraSweet" title="NutraSweet" >NutraSweet</a>; since 2009 it also has been sold under the brand name AminoSweet. It was first synthesized in 1965 and the patent expired in 1992.

The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame_controversy" title="Aspartame controversy" >safety of aspartame</a> has been the subject of several political and medical controversies, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_hearing" title="Congressional hearing" class="mw-redirect" >congressional hearings</a> and internet hoaxes<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-Snopes1-2" >[3]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-3" >[4]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-4" >[5]</a> since its initial approval for use in food products by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="U.S. Food and Drug Administration" class="mw-redirect" >U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) in 1974. A 2007 medical review on the subject concluded that "the weight of existing scientific evidence indicates that aspartame is safe at current levels of consumption as a non-nutritive sweetener".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-CritReview-5" >[6]</a> However, because its breakdown products include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine" >phenylalanine</a>, aspartame must be avoided by people with the genetic condition <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria" >phenylketonuria</a> (PKU).

Upon ingestion, aspartame breaks down into natural residual components, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid" >aspartic acid</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine" >phenylalanine</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol" >methanol</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-24" >[25]</a> and further breakdown products including<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde" >formaldehyde</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-25" >[26]</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid" >formic acid</a>, accumulation of the latter being suspected as the major cause of injury in methanol poisoning. Human studies show that formic acid is excreted faster than it is formed after ingestion of aspartate. In some fruit juices, higher concentrations of methanol can be found than the amount produced from aspartame in beverages.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-stegink1987-12" >[13]</a>

High levels of the naturally-occurring <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acid" title="Essential amino acid" >essential amino acid</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine" >phenylalanine</a> are a health hazard to those born with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria" >phenylketonuria</a> (PKU), a rare inherited disease that prevents phenylalanine from being properly metabolized. Since individuals with PKU must consider aspartame as an additional source of phenylalanine, foods containing aspartame sold in the United States must state "Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine" on their product labels.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-26" >[27]</a>

In the UK, foods that contain aspartame are legally required by the country's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency" title="Food Standards Agency" >Food Standards Agency</a> to list the chemical among the product's ingredients and carry the warning "Contains a source of phenylalanine" – this is usually at the foot of the list of ingredients. Manufacturers are also required to print '"with sweetener(s)" on the label close to the main product name' on foods that contain "sweeteners such as aspartame" or "with sugar and sweetener(s)" on "foods that contain both sugar and sweetener".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-27" >[28]</a>

In Canada, foods that contain aspartame are legally required by the country to list the chemical among the product's ingredients and include a measure of the amount of aspartame per serving. As well, labels must state that the product contains phenylalanine – this is usually in the order of ingredients, contained in brackets.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-28" >[29]</a>

Under the trade names <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_(sweetener)" title="Equal (sweetener)" >Equal</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NutraSweet" title="NutraSweet" >NutraSweet</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canderel" title="Canderel" >Canderel</a>, aspartame is an ingredient in approximately 6,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide, including (but not limited to) diet sodas and other soft drinks, instant breakfasts, breath mints, cereals, sugar-free chewing gum, cocoa mixes, frozen desserts, gelatin desserts, juices, laxatives, chewable vitamin supplements, milk drinks, pharmaceutical drugs and supplements, shake mixes, tabletop sweeteners, teas, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_coffee" title="Instant coffee" >instant coffees</a>, topping mixes, wine coolers and yogurt. It is provided as a table <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condiment" title="Condiment" >condiment</a> in some countries. Aspartame is less suitable for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking" title="Baking" >baking</a> than other sweeteners, because it <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_decomposition" title="Chemical decomposition" >breaks down</a> when heated and loses much of its sweetness. Aspartame is also one of the main sugar substitutes used by people with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" title="Diabetes mellitus" >diabetes</a>.

Aspartame has been found to be safe for human consumption by more than ninety countries worldwide,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-Health_Canada-48" >[49]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-FSANZ-49" >[50]</a> with FDA officials describing aspartame as "one of the most thoroughly tested and studied food additives the agency has ever approved" and its safety as "clear cut",<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-50" >[51]</a> but has been the subject of several controversies, hoaxes<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-Snopes1-2" >[3]</a> and health scares.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-51" >[52]</a>

Problems with safety tests were found following the initial approval by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="U.S. Food and Drug Administration" class="mw-redirect" >U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) in 1974. Approval was rescinded the following year and after reviews and additional testing, final approval was granted in 1981. Allegations of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest" >conflicts of interest</a> marred the FDA's approval of aspartame; question the quality of the initial research supporting its safety;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-GAO87-52" >[53]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-53" >[54]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-54" >[55]</a> The U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office" >Government Accountability Office</a> conducted reviews of the actions of involved officials in 1986 and the approval process in 1987; neither the allegations of conflict of interest nor problems in the final approval process were substantiated.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-GAO87-52" >[53]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-GAO86-55" >[56]</a>

A widely circulated email hoax cited aspartame as the cause of numerous diseases.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-urbanlegends-56" >[57]</a> The Center for Disease Control investigated and was unable to find any significant<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology" >epidemiological</a> associations to serious risk or harm.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-57" >[58]</a>

The weight of existing scientific evidence indicates that aspartame is safe at current levels of consumption as a non-nutritive sweetener.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-CritReview-5" >[6]</a> Reviews conducted by regulatory agencies decades after aspartame was first approved have supported its continued availability.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame#cite_note-58" >[59]</a>

Aspartame

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