Plutarch

<h1 id="section_0" >Plutarch</h1>

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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" >For other uses, see <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Plutarch (disambiguation)" >Plutarch (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" >Not to be confused with <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutarchy" >Plutarchy</a>.</div>

<p ><b >Plutarch</b> (<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" title="Help:IPA for English" >/ˈpluːtɑːrk/</a>; <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language" >Greek</a>: Πλούταρχος, <i >Ploútarkhos</i>, <small >Koine Greek: </small><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Greek" title="Help:IPA for Greek" >[plǔːtarkʰos]</a>; c. AD 46 – AD 120),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-1" >[1]</a></sup> later named, upon becoming a <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship" >Roman citizen</a>, <b >Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus</b>, (Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-2" >[a]</a></sup> was a Greek <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography" title="Biography" >biographer</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay" title="Essay" >essayist</a>, known primarily for his <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives" >Parallel Lives</a></i> and <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia" >Moralia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-3" >[2]</a></sup> He is classified<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-4" >[3]</a></sup> as a <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism" >Middle Platonist</a>. Plutarch's surviving works were written in Greek, but intended for both Greek and Roman readers.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-5" >[4]</a></sup></p>

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<th colspan="2" >Plutarch</th>

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<div >Plutarch's bust at <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaeronea" title="Chaeronea" >Chaeronea</a>, his home town</div>

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<td >c. AD 46

<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaeronea" title="Chaeronea" >Chaeronea</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia" >Boeotia</a></td>

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<td >c. AD 120

<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi" >Delphi</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phocis_(ancient_region)" title="Phocis (ancient region)" >Phocis</a></td>

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<th scope="row" >Occupation</th>

<td class="role" >Biographer, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay" title="Essay" >essayist</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher" >philosopher</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest" title="Priest" >priest</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambassador" title="Ambassador" >ambassador</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate" >magistrate</a></td>

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<th scope="row" >Subject</th>

<td ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography" title="Biography" >Biography</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralia#Books" title="Moralia" >various</a></td>

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<th scope="row" >Literary movement</th>

<td ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism" >Middle Platonism</a>,

<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic literature" >Hellenistic literature</a></td>

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<h2 class="collapsible-heading" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="toc-collapsible-block-0" >Contents</h2>

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<h3 class="in-block" >Early life<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life" data-section="2" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<div class="thumbcaption" >Ruins of the Temple of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo" >Apollo</a> at <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia" >Delphi</a>, where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia" >oracle</a></div>

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<p >Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaeronea" title="Chaeronea" >Chaeronea</a>, about 80 km (50 miles) east of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi" >Delphi</a>, in the Greek region of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia" >Boeotia</a>. His family was wealthy. The name of Plutarch's father has not been preserved, but based on the common Greek custom of repeating a name in alternate generations, it was probably Nikarchus (Nίκαρχoς). The name of Plutarch's grandfather was <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamprias" title="Lamprias" >Lamprias</a>, as he attested in <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia" >Moralia</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-6" >[5]</a></sup> and in his <i >Life of Antony</i>.

His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joannes_Rualdus" title="Joannes Rualdus" >Rualdus</a>, in his 1624 work <i >Life of Plutarchus</i>, recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. Interestingly, he hinted at a belief in <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation" >reincarnation</a> in that letter of consolation.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-7" >[6]</a></sup>

The exact number of his sons is not certain, although two of them, Autobulus and the second Plutarch, are often mentioned. Plutarch's treatise <i >De animae procreatione in Timaeo</i> is dedicated to them, and the marriage of his son Autobulus is the occasion of one of the dinner parties recorded in the "Table Talk". Another person, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soklarus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Soklarus (page does not exist)" >Soklarus</a>, is spoken of in terms which seem to imply that he was Plutarch's son, but this is nowhere definitely stated. His treatise on marriage questions, addressed to <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurydice" title="Eurydice" >Eurydice</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollianus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pollianus (page does not exist)" >Pollianus</a>, seems to speak of her<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" >[<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch" >who?</a></i>]</sup> as having been recently an inmate of his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart-Long_8-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Stewart-Long-8" >[7]</a></sup>

Plutarch studied <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics" >mathematics</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy" >philosophy</a> at the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy" >Academy</a> of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens" title="Athens" >Athens</a> under <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonius_of_Athens" title="Ammonius of Athens" >Ammonius</a> from 66 to 67.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-9" >[8]</a></sup>

At some point, Plutarch took <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship" >Roman citizenship</a>. As evidenced by his new name, <b >Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus</b>, his sponsor for citizenship was <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Mestrius_Florus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lucius Mestrius Florus (page does not exist)" >Lucius Mestrius Florus</a>, a Roman of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul" >consular</a> status whom Plutarch also used as a historical source for his <i >Life of Otho</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-10" >[9]</a></sup></p>

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<td >"The <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)" >soul</a>, being eternal, after <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death" title="Death" >death</a> is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things."</td>

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<td >Plutarch (<i >The Consolation</i>, Moralia)</td>

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<p >He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries" >mysteries</a> of the Greek god <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo" >Apollo</a>. For many years Plutarch served as one of the two priests at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the site of the famous Delphic Oracle, twenty miles from his home. By his writings and lectures Plutarch became a celebrity in the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire" >Roman Empire</a>, yet he continued to reside where he was born, and actively participated in local affairs, even serving as mayor. At his country estate, guests from all over the empire congregated for serious conversation, presided over by Plutarch in his marble chair. Many of these dialogues were recorded and published, and the 78 essays and other works which have survived are now known collectively as the <i >Moralia</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" >[<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block" >Work as magistrate and ambassador<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Work as magistrate and ambassador" data-section="3" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p >In addition to his duties as a priest of the Delphic temple, Plutarch was also a magistrate at Chaeronea and he represented his home<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" >[<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify" >clarification needed</a></i>]</sup> on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archon" title="Archon" >archon</a> in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. He busied himself with all the little matters of the town and undertook the humblest of duties.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-11" >[10]</a></sup>

The <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suda" title="Suda" >Suda</a></i>, a <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval" >medieval</a> Greek encyclopedia, states that Emperor <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan" >Trajan</a> made Plutarch <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procurator_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Roman)" >procurator</a> of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria" >Illyria</a>. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not speak <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrian_languages" title="Illyrian languages" >Illyrian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-12" >[11]</a></sup>

According to the 8th/9th century historian <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus" title="George Syncellus" >George Syncellus</a>, late in Plutarch's life, Emperor <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian" >Hadrian</a> appointed him nominal <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procurator(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Roman)" >procurator</a> of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaea(Roman_province)" title="Achaea (Roman province)" >Achaea</a> – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-13" >[12]</a></sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block" >Late period: Priest at Delphi<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late period: Priest at Delphi" data-section="4" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<div class="thumbcaption" >Portrait of a philosopher and Hermaic stele at Delphi Museum</div>

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<p >Plutarch spent the last thirty years of his life serving as a priest in Delphi. He thus connected part of his literary work with the sanctuary of Apollo, the processes of oracle-giving and the personalities who lived or traveled there. One of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse" (Moralia 11) ( "Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν").<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-14" >[13]</a></sup> Even more important is the dialogue "On the E in Delphi" ("Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς"),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-15" >[14]</a></sup> which features <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonius_of_Athens" title="Ammonius of Athens" >Ammonius</a>, a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother. According to Ammonius, the letter E written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: the wise men of antiquity, whose <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphic_maxims" title="Delphic maxims" >maxims</a> were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilon" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilon" >Chilon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon" title="Solon" >Solon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales" >Thales</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_of_Priene" title="Bias of Priene" >Bias</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittakos" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittakos" >Pittakos</a>. However, the tyrants <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleobulus" title="Cleobulus" >Cleobulos</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periandros" class="mw-redirect" title="Periandros" >Periandros</a> used their political power in order to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the E, which corresponds to number 5, constituted an acknowledgment that the Delphic maxims actually originated from the five real wise men. The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_Archaeological_Museum" title="Delphi Archaeological Museum" >Archaeological Museum of Delphi</a>, dating to the 2nd century AD, had been in the past identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age. His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils. The portrait is no longer thought to represent Plutarch. Next to this portrait stands a fragmentary <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hermaic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermaic (page does not exist)" >hermaic</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stele" title="Stele" >stele</a>, bearing a portrait probably of the author from Chaeronea and priest in Delphi. Its inscription, however, reads: Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν | τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι. (Syll.3 843=CID 4, no. 151) The citizens of Delphi and Chaeronea dedicated this to Plutarch together, following the precepts of the Amphictyony.</p>

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<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-1" >Works<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Works" data-section="5" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

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<h3 class="in-block" >Lives of the Roman emperors<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lives of the Roman emperors" data-section="6" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p >Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus" >Augustus</a> to <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius" >Vitellius</a>. Of these, only the Lives of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galba" title="Galba" >Galba</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otho" title="Otho" >Otho</a> survive. The Lives of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius" >Tiberius</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nero" title="Nero" >Nero</a> are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-16" >[15]</a></sup> and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty" >Flavian dynasty</a> or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98).

There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-17" >[16]</a></sup> Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aratus_of_Sicyon" title="Aratus of Sicyon" >Aratus of Sicyon</a> and the Life of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxerxes_II_of_Persia" title="Artaxerxes II of Persia" >Artaxerxes II</a> (the biographies of Hesiod, Pindar, Crates and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in <i >Galba-Otho</i> the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch’s morally founded ideal of governing as a <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps" >Princeps</a> (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E).<sup id="cite_ref-Cf.Holzbach.2C_op.cit..2C_24.2C_67.E2.80.9383_18-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Cf.Holzbach.2C_op.cit..2C_24.2C_67.E2.80.9383-18" >[17]</a></sup>

Arguing from the perspective of Platonian political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in <i >Galba-Otho</i> Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principate" title="Principate" >Principate</a> in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Cf.Holzbach.2C_op.cit..2C_24.2C_67.E2.80.9383_18-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Cf.Holzbach.2C_op.cit..2C_24.2C_67.E2.80.9383-18" >[17]</a></sup> "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-19" >[18]</a></sup>

<i >Galba-Otho</i> was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's <i >Parallel Lives</i> as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximus_Planudes" title="Maximus Planudes" >Maximus Planudes</a>' edition where Galba and Otho appear as <i >Opera</i> XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that <i >Galba-Otho</i> was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-20" >[19]</a></sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block" ><i >Parallel Lives</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Parallel Lives" data-section="7" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<div class="thumbcaption" >A page from the 1470 Ulrich Han printing of Plutarch's <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives" >Parallel Lives</a></i></div>

</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" >Main article: <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives" >Parallel Lives</a></div>

<p >Plutarch's best-known work is the <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives" >Parallel Lives</a></i>, a series of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography" title="Biography" >biographies</a> of famous Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality" title="Morality" >moral</a> virtues and vices. The surviving <i >Lives</i> contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek <i >Life</i> and one Roman <i >Life</i>, as well as four unpaired single <i >Lives</i>.

As is explained in the opening paragraph of his <i >Life of Alexander</i>, Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy" title="Physiognomy" >parallels between physical appearance</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character" >moral character</a>. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics" >moral philosophers</a>.

Some of the <i >Lives</i>, such as those of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles" >Heracles</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon" >Philip II of Macedon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas" >Epaminondas</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus" >Scipio Africanus</a>, no longer exist; many of the remaining <i >Lives</i> are truncated, contain obvious <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacuna_(manuscripts)" title="Lacuna (manuscripts)" >lacunae</a> or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant <i >Lives</i> include those on <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon" title="Solon" >Solon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles" >Themistocles</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristides" title="Aristides" >Aristides</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agesilaus_II" title="Agesilaus II" >Agesilaus II</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles" >Pericles</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades" >Alcibiades</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicias" title="Nicias" >Nicias</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes" >Demosthenes</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelopidas" title="Pelopidas" >Pelopidas</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philopoemen" title="Philopoemen" >Philopoemen</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timoleon" title="Timoleon" >Timoleon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dion_of_Syracuse" title="Dion of Syracuse" >Dion of Syracuse</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes" >Eumenes</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great" >Alexander the Great</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus" >Pyrrhus of Epirus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus" >Romulus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius" >Numa Pompilius</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolanus" title="Coriolanus" >Coriolanus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus" title="Theseus" >Theseus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aemilius_Paullus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilius Paullus" >Aemilius Paullus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus" >Tiberius Gracchus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus" >Gaius Gracchus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius" >Gaius Marius</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla" >Sulla</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sertorius" class="mw-redirect" title="Sertorius" >Sertorius</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus" >Lucullus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey" >Pompey</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar" >Julius Caesar</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero" >Cicero</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder" >Cato the Elder</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony" >Mark Antony</a>, and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Junius Brutus" >Marcus Junius Brutus</a>.</p>

<h4 class="in-block" >Spartan lives and sayings<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Spartan lives and sayings" data-section="8" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period, and since their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics, Plutarch's five Spartan lives and <i >Sayings of Spartans</i> and <i >Sayings of Spartan Women</i>, rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are one of the richest sources for historians of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laconia(ancient_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laconia (ancient region)" >Lacedaemonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999-21" >[20]</a></sup> But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw what he wrote.<sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999-21" >[20]</a></sup> Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians Sarah Pomeroy, Stanley Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined."<sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-2" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999-21" >[20]</a></sup> Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change."<sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-3" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999-21" >[20]</a></sup> Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform.<sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-4" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B._1999-21" >[20]</a></sup></p>

<h4 class="in-block" ><i >Life of Alexander</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Life of Alexander" data-section="9" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >Plutarch's <i >Life of Alexander</i>, written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of only five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great" >Alexander the Great</a>. It includes <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote" >anecdotes</a> and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius" >Numa Pompilius</a>, the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar" >Roman calendar</a>.

Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysippus" >Lysippus</a>, Alexander's favourite <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sculptor" >sculptor</a>, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control. As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black" >Cleitus the Black</a>, which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.

Much, too, is made of Alexander's scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." This is mostly true, for Alexander's tastes grew more extravagant as he grew older only in the last year of his life and only<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" >[<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch" >according to whom?</a></i>]</sup> as a means of approaching the image of a ruler his Persian subjects were better accustomed to — thus making it easier for him to succeed in uniting the Greek and Persian worlds together, according to the plan he had announced in his famous Speech given in Opis in 324 BC.</p>

<h4 class="in-block" ><i >Life of Caesar</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Life of Caesar" data-section="10" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >Together with <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius" >Suetonius</a>'s <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars" >The Twelve Caesars</a></i>, and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar" >Caesar</a>'s own works <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico" >de Bello Gallico</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili" title="Commentarii de Bello Civili" >de Bello Civili</a>, this <i >Life</i> is the main account of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar" >Julius Caesar</a>'s feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling us the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Cinna" title="Lucius Cornelius Cinna" >Cinna's</a> daughter, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelia_(wife_of_Caesar)" title="Cornelia (wife of Caesar)" >Cornelia</a>. Other important parts are these containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers.</p>

<p >His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword.</p>

<div class="templatequotecite" ><cite >— <i >Life of Caesar</i>, XVI</cite></div>

</blockquote>

<p >However, this <i >Life</i> shows few differences between Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Gallico" >De Bello Gallico</a></i> and <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Bello_Civili" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Civili" >De Bello Civili</a></i>). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the <i >De Bello Gallico</i> and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works.

In the final part of this <i >Life</i>, Plutarch counts Caesar's assassination, and several details. The book ends on telling the destiny of his murderers, and says that Caesar's "great guardian-genius" avenged him after life.</p>

<h4 class="in-block" ><i >Life of Pyrrhus</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Life of Pyrrhus" data-section="11" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >Plutarch's <i >Life of Pyrrhus</i> is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264 BC, for which neither <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus" >Dionysius</a> nor <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy" title="Livy" >Livy</a> have surviving texts.<sup id="cite_ref-TJCornell_22-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-TJCornell-22" >[21]</a></sup></p>

<h4 class="in-block" >Criticism of <i >Parallel Lives</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Criticism of Parallel Lives" data-section="12" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<tr >

<td >"It is not histories I am writing, but lives; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die."</td>

</tr>

<tr >

<td >Plutarch (<i >Life of Alexander/Life of Julius Caesar</i>, Parallel Lives, [tr. E.L. Bowie])</td>

</tr>

</tbody></table>

<p >Plutarch stretches and occasionally fabricates the similarities between famous Greeks and Romans in order to be able to write their biographies as parallel. The lives of Nicias and Crassus, for example, have little in common except that "both were rich and both suffered great military defeats at the ends of their lives".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-23" >[22]</a></sup>

In his <i >Life of Pompey</i>, Plutarch praises Pompey's trustworthy character and tactful behaviour in order to conjure a moral judgement that opposes most historical accounts. Plutarch delivers anecdotes with moral points, rather than in-depth comparative analyses of the causes of the fall of the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid dynasty" >Achaemenid Empire</a> and the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic" >Roman Republic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Livius_24-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Livius-24" >[23]</a></sup> and tends on occasion to fit facts to hypotheses.

On the other hand, he generally sets out his moral anecdotes in chronological order (unlike, say, his Roman contemporary <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius" >Suetonius</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Livius_24-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Livius-24" >[23]</a></sup> and is rarely narrow-minded and unrealistic, almost always prepared to acknowledge the complexity of the human condition where moralising cannot explain it.</p>

<h3 class="in-block" ><i >Moralia</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Moralia" data-section="13" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<div class="thumbcaption" ><i >Moralia</i>, 1531</div>

</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" >Main article: <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia" >Moralia</a></div>

<p >The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia" >Moralia</a></i> (loosely translated as <i >Customs and Mores</i>). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including <i >On Fraternal Affection</i>—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, <i >On the Fortune or the Virtue of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great" >Alexander the Great</a></i>—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, <i >On the Worship of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis" title="Isis" >Isis</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris" >Osiris</a></i> (a crucial source of information on <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt" >Egyptian</a> religious rites),<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-25" >[24]</a></sup> along with more philosophical treatises, such as <i >On the Decline of the Oracles</i>, <i >On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance</i>, <i >On Peace of Mind</i> and lighter fare, such as <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus" title="Odysseus" >Odysseus</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gryllus" title="Gryllus" >Gryllus</a></i>, a humorous <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue" >dialogue</a> between <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer" title="Homer" >Homer</a>'s Odysseus and one of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circe" title="Circe" >Circe</a>'s enchanted pigs. The <i >Moralia</i> was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.</p>

<h4 class="in-block" ><i >Questions</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Questions" data-section="14" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >Book IV of the <i >Moralia</i> contains the <i >Roman and Greek Questions</i> (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as 'Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?' (no. 91)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-26" >[25]</a></sup> and then suggests answers to them, often several mutually exclusive.</p>

<h3 class="in-block" ><i >On the Malice of Herodotus</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: On the Malice of Herodotus" data-section="15" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<div class="thumbcaption" >A bust of the early Greek historian <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus" >Herodotus</a>, whom Plutarch criticized in <i >On the Malice of Herodotus</i></div>

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<p >In <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Malice_of_Herodotus" title="On the Malice of Herodotus" >On the Malice of Herodotus</a></i> Plutarch criticizes the historian <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus" >Herodotus</a> for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the “first instance in literature of the slashing review.”<sup id="cite_ref-NewCriterion_27-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-NewCriterion-27" >[26]</a></sup> The 19th-century English historian <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Grote" title="George Grote" >George Grote</a> considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-28" >[27]</a></sup> Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays devil's advocate to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart-Long_8-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Stewart-Long-8" >[7]</a></sup> According to Plutarch scholar R. H. Barrow, Herodotus’ real failing in Plutarch’s eyes was to advance any criticism at all of those states that saved Greece from Persia. “Plutarch,” he concluded, “is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong.”<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-29" >[28]</a></sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block" >Other works<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Other works" data-section="16" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p ><i >Symposiacs</i><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-30" >[29]</a></sup> (Συμποσιακά)</p>

<h3 class="in-block" >Lost works<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lost works" data-section="17" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p >The Romans loved the <i >Lives</i>, and enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day. Some scholars, however, believe that only a third to one-half of Plutarch's corpus is extant.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" >[<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup> The <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_work#Classical_world" title="Lost work" >lost works</a> of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. There are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-31" >[30]</a></sup>

Plutarch's general procedure for the <i >Lives</i> was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his <i >Lives</i> which appear in a list of his writings, those of Hercules, the first pair of <i >Parallel Lives</i>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus" >Scipio Africanus</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas" >Epaminondas</a>, and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus" >Augustus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius" >Claudius</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nero" title="Nero" >Nero</a> have not been found and may be lost forever.<sup id="cite_ref-NewCriterion_27-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-NewCriterion-27" >[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-32" >[31]</a></sup>

Other lost works include "Whether One Who Suspends Judgment on Everything Is Condemned to Inaction", "On Pyrrho’s Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the Pyrrhonians and the Academics".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-33" >[32]</a></sup></p>

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<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-2" >Philosophy<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Philosophy" data-section="18" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

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<p >Plutarch was a <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism" >Platonist</a>, but was open to the influence of the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripatetics" >Peripatetics</a>, and in some details even to <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism" >Stoicism</a> despite his criticism of their principles.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller306_34-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller306-34" >[33]</a></sup> He rejected only <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism" >Epicureanism</a> absolutely.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller306_34-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller306-34" >[33]</a></sup> He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup> He was more interested in moral and religious questions.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup>

In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean "atheism" he cherished a pure idea of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God" >God</a> that was more in accordance with <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato" >Plato</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-2" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup> He adopted a second principle (<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyad(Greek_philosophy)" title="Dyad (Greek philosophy)" >Dyad</a></i>) in order to explain the phenomenal world.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-3" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup> This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil world-soul which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-4" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup> Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-5" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup> He elevated God above the finite world, and thus <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daemon (mythology)" >daemons</a> became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-6" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup>

Platonic-Peripatetic <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics" >ethics</a> were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_35-7" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller307-35" >[34]</a></sup> The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_36-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller308-36" >[35]</a></sup> However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination" title="Divination" >divination</a> in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_36-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller308-36" >[35]</a></sup>

His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_36-2" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller308-36" >[35]</a></sup> The <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology" >myths</a> contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_36-3" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller308-36" >[35]</a></sup>Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_36-4" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-zeller308-36" >[35]</a></sup></p>

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<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-3" >Influence<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Influence" data-section="19" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

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<caption >External video</caption>

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<td colspan="2" ><img src="/4ea15988-17d7-5de0-b561-49c2cfbcd999.png"/> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/161028814" >Shakespeare: Metamorphosis - Plutarch’s “Lives” (1579)</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_House_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate House Library" >Senate House Library</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-37" >[36]</a></sup></td>

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<p >Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="English Literature" >English</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature" >French literature</a>. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare" >Shakespeare</a> paraphrased parts of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_North" title="Thomas North" >Thomas North</a>'s translation of selected <i >Lives</i> in <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays" title="Shakespeare's plays" >his plays</a>, and occasionally quoted from them verbatim.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-38" >[37]</a></sup>

<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson" >Ralph Waldo Emerson</a> and the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism" >Transcendentalists</a> were greatly influenced by the <i >Moralia</i> — so much so, in fact, that Emerson called the Lives "a bible for heroes" in his glowing introduction to the five-volume 19th-century edition.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-39" >[38]</a></sup> He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius" >Mencius</a>: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.'"<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-40" >[39]</a></sup>

<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne" >Montaigne</a>'s <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essays_(Montaigne)" title="Essays (Montaigne)" >Essays</a></i> draw extensively on Plutarch's <i >Moralia</i> and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. <i >Essays</i> contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.<sup id="cite_ref-NewCriterion_27-2" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-NewCriterion-27" >[26]</a></sup>

<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell" >James Boswell</a> quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_of_Samuel_Johnson" title="Life of Samuel Johnson" >Life of Samuel Johnson</a></i>. Other admirers included <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson" >Ben Jonson</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden" >John Dryden</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton" >Alexander Hamilton</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton" >John Milton</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_L%27amour" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis L'amour" >Louis L'amour</a>, and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon" >Francis Bacon</a>, as well as such disparate figures as <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Mather" title="Cotton Mather" >Cotton Mather</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Browning" title="Robert Browning" >Robert Browning</a>.

Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history."</p>

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<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-4" >Translations of <i >Lives</i> and <i >Moralia</i><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Translations of Lives and Moralia" data-section="20" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

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<p >There are translations, from the original <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek" >Greek</a>, in <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin" >Latin</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" title="English language" >English</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language" >French</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language" >German</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language" >Italian</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language" >Polish</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language" >Hebrew</a>.

“One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original.”<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-41" >[40]</a></sup></p>

<h3 class="in-block" >French translations<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: French translations" data-section="21" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Amyot" title="Jacques Amyot" >Jacques Amyot</a>'s translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the <i >Lives</i> in 1559 and <i >Moralia</i> in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-42" >[41]</a></sup> Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the <i >Lives</i> in 1579 based on Amyot’s French translation instead of the original Greek.</p>

<h3 class="in-block" >English translations<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: English translations" data-section="22" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p >Plutarch's <i >Lives</i> were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Thomas_North" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Thomas North" >Sir Thomas North</a> in 1579. The complete <i >Moralia</i> was first translated into English from the original Greek by <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philemon_Holland" title="Philemon Holland" >Philemon Holland</a> in 1603.

In 1683, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden" >John Dryden</a> began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the <i >Lives</i> by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Hugh_Clough" title="Arthur Hugh Clough" >Arthur Hugh Clough</a> (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library" >Modern Library</a>. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852291639" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" >ISBN 0-85229-163-9</a>, copyright 1952, Library of Congress catalogue card number 55-10323.

In 1770, English brothers <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Langhorne(poet)" title="John Langhorne (poet)" >John</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Langhorne(clergyman)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Langhorne (clergyman) (page does not exist)" >William Langhorne</a> published "Plutarch's Lives from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819.

From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernadotte_Perrin" title="Bernadotte Perrin" >Bernadotte Perrin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-43" >[42]</a></sup> produced a new translation of the <i >Lives</i> for the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library" >Loeb Classical Library</a>. The <i >Moralia</i> is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors.

<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Classics" title="Penguin Classics" >Penguin Classics</a> began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with <i >The Fall of the Roman Republic</i>, which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-44" >[43]</a></sup> Penguin continues to revise the volumes.</p>

<h3 class="in-block" >Italian translations<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Italian translations" data-section="23" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p >Note: just main translations from the second half of 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-45" >[44]</a></sup></p>

<ul >

<li >Battista Alessandro Iaconelli, <i >Vite di Plutarcho traducte de Latino in vulgare in Aquila</i>, L’Aquila, 1482.</li>

<li >Dario Tiberti, <i >Le Vite di Plutarco ridotte in compendio, per M. Dario Tiberto da Cesena, e tradotte alla commune utilità di ciascuno per L. Fauno, in buona lingua volgare</i>, Venice, 1543.</li>

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodovico_Domenichi" title="Lodovico Domenichi" >Lodovico Domenichi</a>, <i >Vite di Plutarco. Tradotte da m. Lodouico Domenichi, con gli suoi sommarii posti dinanzi a ciascuna vita...</i>, Venice, 1560.</li>

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Sansovino" title="Francesco Sansovino" >Francesco Sansovino</a>, <i >Le vite de gli huomini illustri greci e romani, di Plutarco Cheroneo sommo filosofo et historico, tradotte nuovamente da M. Francesco Sansovino...</i>, Venice, 1564.</li>

<li >Marcello Adriani il Giovane, <i >Opuscoli morali di Plutarco volgarizzati da Marcello Adriani il giovane</i>, Florence, 1819-1820.</li>

<li >Girolamo Pompei, <i >Le Vite Di Plutarco</i>, Verona, 1772-1773.</li>

</ul>

<h3 class="in-block" >Latin translations<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Latin translations" data-section="24" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p >There are multiple translations of <i >Parallel Lives</i> into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" title="Louis XV of France" >Louis XV of France</a> and a 1470 Ulrich Han translation.</p>

<h3 class="in-block" >German translations<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: German translations" data-section="25" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<h4 class="in-block" >Hieronymus Emser<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Hieronymus Emser" data-section="26" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated <i >De capienda ex inimicis utilitate</i> (wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan, Leipzig).</p>

<h4 class="in-block" >Gottlob Benedict von Schirach<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Gottlob Benedict von Schirach" data-section="27" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas, 1776–80.</p>

<h4 class="in-block" >Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser" data-section="28" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<p >Plutarch's <i >Lives and Moralia</i> were translated into German by <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Friedrich_Salomon_Kaltwasser&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser (page does not exist)" >Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser</a>:</p>

<ul >

<li ><i >Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen</i>. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799-1806.</li>

<li ><i >Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen</i>. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783-1800.</li>

</ul>

<h4 class="in-block" >Subsequent German translations<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Subsequent German translations" data-section="29" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h4>

<ul >

<li ><i >Biographies</i>

<ul >

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konrat_Ziegler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Konrat Ziegler (page does not exist)" >Konrat Ziegler</a> (<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrat_Ziegler" class="extiw" title="de:Konrat Ziegler" >de</a>) (Hrsg.): <i >Große Griechen und Römer</i>. 6 Bde. Zürich 1954-1965. (<i >Bibliothek der alten Welt</i>).</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li ><i >Moralia</i>

<ul >

<li >Konrat Ziegler (Hrsg.):<i >Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung</i>, Zürich 1952. (<i >Bibliothek der alten Welt</i>)</li>

<li >Bruno Snell (Hrsg.):<i >Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts - und andere Schriften</i>, Zürich 1948. (<i >Bibliothek der alten Welt</i>)</li>

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Josef_Klauck" title="Hans-Josef Klauck" >Hans-Josef Klauck</a> (Hrsg.): <i >Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften</i>, Stuttgart 1997. (<i >Reclams Universal-Bibliothek</i>)</li>

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herwig_G%C3%B6rgemanns" title="Herwig Görgemanns" >Herwig Görgemanns</a> (Hrsg.):<i >Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften</i>, Düsseldorf 2003. (<i >Tusculum</i>)</li>

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

<h3 class="in-block" >Hebrew translations<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Hebrew translations" data-section="30" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h3>

<p >Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's <i >Parallel Lives</i> published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bialik_Institute" title="Bialik Institute" >Bialik Institute</a> in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, <i >Roman Lives</i>, first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolanus" title="Coriolanus" >Coriolanus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus" >Fabius Maximus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus" >Tiberius Gracchus</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus" >Gaius Gracchus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder" >Cato the Elder</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger" >Cato the Younger</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius" >Gaius Marius</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla" >Sulla</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sertorius" class="mw-redirect" title="Sertorius" >Sertorius</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus" >Lucullus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey" >Pompey</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus" >Crassus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero" >Cicero</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar" >Julius Caesar</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brutus" title="Brutus" >Brutus</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony" >Mark Anthony</a>.

The second volume, <i >Greek Lives</i>, first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Sparta" title="Lycurgus of Sparta" >Lycurgus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristides" title="Aristides" >Aristides</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon" >Cimon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles" >Pericles</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicias" title="Nicias" >Nicias</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysander" title="Lysander" >Lysander</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agesilaus" class="mw-redirect" title="Agesilaus" >Agesilaus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelopidas" title="Pelopidas" >Pelopidas</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dion_of_Syracuse" title="Dion of Syracuse" >Dion</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timoleon" title="Timoleon" >Timoleon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes" >Demosthenes</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great" >Alexander the Great</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes" >Eumenes</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phocion" title="Phocion" >Phocion</a>. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon" title="Solon" >Solon</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles" >Themistocles</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades" >Alcibiades</a> were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai.

The third volume, <i >Greek and Roman Lives</i>, published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" title="Demetrius I of Macedon" >Demetrius</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus" >Pyrrhus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agis_IV" title="Agis IV" >Agis</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleomenes_III" title="Cleomenes III" >Cleomenes</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aratus" title="Aratus" >Aratus</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia" >Artaxerxes</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philopoemen" title="Philopoemen" >Philopoemen</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Furius_Camillus" title="Marcus Furius Camillus" >Camillus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Marcellus" title="Marcus Claudius Marcellus" >Marcellus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamininus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flamininus" >Flamininus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aemilius_Paulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilius Paulus" >Aemilius Paulus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galba" title="Galba" >Galba</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otho" title="Otho" >Otho</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus" title="Theseus" >Theseus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus" >Romulus</a>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius" >Numa Pompilius</a> and <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poplicola" class="mw-redirect" title="Poplicola" >Poplicola</a>. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" >[<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" >citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

</div>

<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-5" >Pseudo-Plutarch<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Pseudo-Plutarch" data-section="31" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" >Main article: <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Plutarch" title="Pseudo-Plutarch" >Pseudo-Plutarch</a></div>

<p >Some editions of the <i >Moralia</i> include several works now known to have been <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudepigrapha" title="Pseudepigrapha" >falsely attributed</a> to Plutarch. Among these are the <i >Lives of the Ten Orators</i>, a series of biographies of the <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators" >Attic orators</a> based on <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caecilius_of_Calacte" title="Caecilius of Calacte" >Caecilius of Calacte</a>; <i >On the Opinions of the Philosophers</i>, <i >On Fate</i>, and <i >On Music</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blank_46-0" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Blank-46" >[45]</a></sup> These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as "<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Plutarch" title="Pseudo-Plutarch" >Pseudo-Plutarch</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Blank_46-1" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-Blank-46" >[45]</a></sup> Psuedo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries A.D. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_note-47" >[46]</a></sup></p>

</div>

</div>

<ul >

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism" >Middle Platonism</a></li>

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea" >Numenius of Apamea</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-7" >Notes<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes" data-section="33" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

</div>

<li id="cite_note-2" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-2" >^{</a></b>&#160};The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship" >citizenship</a> in the empire; in this case Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman consul.</li>

</ol>

</div>

<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-8" >References<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References" data-section="34" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

</div>

<li id="cite_note-1" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-1" >^{</a></b> Lamberton}, Robert. <i >Plutarch</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" >[<i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" >page needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li id="cite_note-3" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-3" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation encyclopaedia" >"Plutarch". <i >Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-4" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-4" >^{</a></b> Dillon}, John M. <i ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJQ9dvgh6BwC&dq=Plutarch+middle+platonist&source=gbs_navlinks_s%7CThe" >Middle Platonists: 80 BC to AD 220</a></i>. Cornell University Press, 1996. p.184 ff.</li>

<li id="cite_note-5" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-5" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Stadter, Philip A. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCaBQAAQBAJ" ><i >Plutarch and His Roman Readers</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 69. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198718338" title="Special:BookSources/9780198718338" >9780198718338</a>. Retrieved 2015-02-04. <q>Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience.</q></cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-6" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-6" >^{</a></b> }<i >Symposiacs</i>, Book IX, questions II & III</li>

<li id="cite_note-7" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-7" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Consolatio_ad_uxorem.html" >http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Consolatio_ad_uxorem.html</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-Stewart-Long-8" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Stewart-Long_8-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Stewart-Long_8-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> <cite class="citation book" >Aubrey Stewart, George Long. "Life of Plutarch". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14033/14033.txt" ><i >Plutarch's</i> Lives<i >, Volume I (of 4)</i></a>. The Gutenberg Project. Retrieved 2007-01-03.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-9" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-9" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation web" ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/Intros/Plutarch.php" >"Plutarch Bio(46c.-125)"</a>. The Online Library of Liberty. Retrieved 2006-12-06.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-10" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-10" >^{</a></b> Plutarch, }<i >Otho</i> 14.1</li>

<li id="cite_note-11" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-11" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Clough, Arthur Hugh (1864). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/rom/plutarch/intro.htm" ><i >Plutarch's Lives</i></a>. Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-12" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-12" >^{</a></b> Gianakaris}, C. J. Plutarch. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970.</li>

<li id="cite_note-13" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-13" >^{</a></b> Russell}, D. A. Plutarch. New York: Scribner, 1973.</li>

<li id="cite_note-14" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-14" >^</a></b><a class="external free" href="https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%85%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%A0%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82)" >https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%85%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%A0%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82)</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-15" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-15" >^{</a></b> Plutarch}, Moralia, On the E at Delphi (in ancient Greek) <a class="external free" href="https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82" >https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-16" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-16" >^{</a></b> Ziegler}, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author.</li>

<li id="cite_note-17" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-17" >^{</a></b> Cf}. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed. by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p.13</li>

<li id="cite_note-Cf.Holzbach.2C_op.cit..2C_24.2C_67.E2.80.9383-18" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Cf.Holzbach.2C_op.cit..2C_24.2C_67.E2.80.9383_18-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Cf.Holzbach.2C_op.cit..2C_24.2C_67.E2.80.9383_18-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83</li>

<li id="cite_note-19" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-19" >^{</a></b>&#160};The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/galba.html" >MIT Internet Classics Archive</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-20" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-20" >^{</a></b> Cf}. Holzbach, op. cit., 24</li>

<li id="cite_note-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999-21" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-2" ><sup ><i ><b >c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-3" ><sup ><i ><b >d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Pomeroy.2C_Sarah_B.1999_21-4" ><sup ><i ><b >e</b></i></sup></a> Pomeroy, Sarah B, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Tolbert Roberts Jennifer. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.</li>

<li id="cite_note-TJCornell-22" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-TJCornell_22-0" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Cornell, T.J. (1995). "Introduction". <i >The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. Routledge. p. 3.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-23" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-23" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Plutarch (1972). "Translator's Introduction". <i >Fall Of The Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch</i>. translated by Rex Warner. Penguin Books. p. 8.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Livius-24" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Livius_24-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Livius_24-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> <cite class="citation web" ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livius.org/pi-pm/plutarch/plutarch.htm" >"Plutarch of Chaeronea"</a>. <i >Livius.Org</i>. Retrieved 2006-12-06.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-25" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-25" >^{</a></b> }(but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians)<cite class="citation web" >Plutarch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_isisandosiris.htm" >"Isis and Osiris"</a>. Frank Cole Babbitt (trans.). Retrieved 2006-12-10.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-26" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-26" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation web" ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Roman_Questions*/E.html#91" >"Plutarch • Roman Questions, 90‑113"</a>. <i >uchicago.edu</i>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-NewCriterion-27" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-NewCriterion_27-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-NewCriterion_27-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-NewCriterion_27-2" ><sup ><i ><b >c</b></i></sup></a> <cite class="citation web" >Kimball, Roger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm" >"Plutarch & the issue of character"</a>. The New Criterion Online. Retrieved 2006-12-11.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-28" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-28" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Grote, George (2000-10-19) [1830]. <i >A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 B.C</i>. Routledge. p. 203.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-29" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-29" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Barrow, R.H. (1979) [1967]. <i >Plutarch and His Times</i>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-30" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-30" >^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/" >Plutarch: Symposiacs, in <i >The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies</i>, New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol.III.</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-31" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-31" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >"Translator's Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Introduction*.html" ><i >The Parallel Lives</i></a> (Vol. I ed.). Loeb Classical Library Edition. 1914.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-32" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-32" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation web" >McCutchen, Wilmot H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-classics.com/plutarch.htm" >"Plutarch - His Life and Legacy"</a>. Retrieved 2006-12-10.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-33" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-33" >^{</a></b>&#160};Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp.271-298" >https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp.271-298</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-zeller306-34" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller306_34-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller306_34-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> Eduard Zeller, <i >Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy</i>, 13th edition, page 306</li>

<li id="cite_note-zeller307-35" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-2" ><sup ><i ><b >c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-3" ><sup ><i ><b >d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-4" ><sup ><i ><b >e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-5" ><sup ><i ><b >f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-6" ><sup ><i ><b >g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller307_35-7" ><sup ><i ><b >h</b></i></sup></a> Eduard Zeller, <i >Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy</i>, 13th edition, page 307</li>

<li id="cite_note-zeller308-36" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller308_36-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller308_36-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller308_36-2" ><sup ><i ><b >c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller308_36-3" ><sup ><i ><b >d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-zeller308_36-4" ><sup ><i ><b >e</b></i></sup></a> Eduard Zeller, <i >Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy</i>, 13th edition, page 308</li>

<li id="cite_note-37" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-37" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation web" ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/161028814" >"Shakespeare: Metamorphosis - Plutarch's "Lives" (1579)"</a>. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_House_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate House Library" >Senate House Library</a> at <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vimeo" title="Vimeo" >Vimeo</a>. Retrieved 9 May 2016.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-38" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-38" >^{</a></b>&#160};Honigmann 1959.</li>

<li id="cite_note-39" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-39" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1870). "Introduction". In William W. Goodwin. <i >Plutarch's Morals</i>. London: Sampson, Low. p. xxi.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-40" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-40" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1850). "Uses of Great Men". <i >Representative Men</i>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-41" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-41" >^{</a></b> }<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.J.Rose" title="H. J. Rose" >H. J. Rose</a>. <i >A Handbook of Greek Literature: From Homer to the Age of Lucian.</i>. New York: Dutton, 1960. p. 409 (a Dutton paperback).</li>

<li id="cite_note-42" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-42" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation encyclopaedia" >"Amyot, Jacques (1513-1593)". <i >Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910-1911)</i>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-43" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-43" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation web" ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.1018" >"Bernadotte Perrin Papers (MS 1018). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library."</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-44" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-44" >^{</a></b> }<i >The Age of Alexander</i>, rev. ed. (Penguin, 2012), "Penguin Plutarch".</li>

<li id="cite_note-45" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-45" >^{</a></b>&#160};Virgilio Costa, <i ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/4825458/Sulle_prime_traduzioni_italiane_a_stampa_delle_opere_di_Plutarco_secc.XV-XVI" >Sulle prime traduzioni italiane a stampa delle opere di Plutarco (secc. XV-XVI)</a></i></li>

<li id="cite_note-Blank-46" >^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Blank_46-0" ><sup ><i ><b >a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-Blank_46-1" ><sup ><i ><b >b</b></i></sup></a> <cite class="citation book" >Blank, D. (2011). Martínez, J., ed. <i >'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'</i>. <i >Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature</i>. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas. pp. 33–60.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-47" ><b ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch?wprov=sfla1#cite_ref-47" >^{</a></b> }<cite class="citation book" >Marietta, Don E. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gz-8PsrT32AC&dq=" ><i >Introduction to Ancient Philosophy</i></a>. M.E. Sharpe. p. 190.</cite></li>

</ol>

</div>

<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-9" >Sources<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources" data-section="35" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

</div>

<ul >

<li ><cite class="citation book" >Blackburn, Simon (1994). <i >Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford: <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press" >Oxford University Press</a>.</cite></li>

<li ><cite class="citation book" >Russell, D.A. (2001) [1972]. <i >Plutarch</i>. Duckworth Publishing. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85399-620-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85399-620-7" >978-1-85399-620-7</a>.</cite></li>

<li ><cite class="citation book" >Duff, Timothy (2002) [1999]. <i >Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice</i>. UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925274-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925274-9" >978-0-19-925274-9</a>.</cite></li>

<li ><cite class="citation book" >Hamilton, Edith (1957). <i >The Echo of Greece</i>. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 194. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00231-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00231-4" >0-393-00231-4</a>.</cite></li>

<li >Honigmann, E. A. J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare_Quarterly" title="Shakespeare Quarterly" >Shakespeare Quarterly</a></i>, <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959_in_literature" title="1959 in literature" >1959</a>: 25-33.</li>

<li >Pelling, Christopher: <i >Plutarch and History. Eighteen Studies</i>, London 2002.</li>

<li ><cite class="citation book" >Wardman, Alan (1974). <i >Plutarch's "Lives"</i>. Elek. p. 274. <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number" >ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-236-17622-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-236-17622-6" >0-236-17622-6</a>.</cite></li>

<li ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._Dillon" title="John M. Dillon" >John M. Dillon</a>, <i >The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220</i>, Cornell University Press, 1996 <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801483165" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" >ISBN 978-0801483165</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

<h2 class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0" aria-haspopup="true" aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-10" >External links<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutarch&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links" data-section="36" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-edit-enabled edit-page" >Edit</a></h2>

</div>

<dl >

<dt >Plutarch's works</dt>

</dl>

<tr >

<td class="mbox-text plainlist" >Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i ><b ><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Plutarch" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Plutarch" >Plutarch</a></b></i></td>

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<td class="mbox-text plainlist" ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource" >Wikisource</a> has original works written by or about:

<b ><i ><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Mestrius_Plutarchus" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Mestrius Plutarchus" >Plutarch</a></i></b></td>

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<td class="mbox-text plainlist" >Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i ><b ><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plutarch" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plutarch" >Plutarch</a></b></i>.</td>

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<ul >

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/342" >Works by Plutarch</a> at <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg" >Project Gutenberg</a></li>

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%22Plutarch%22+OR+%22Plutarchus%22%29" >Works by or about Plutarch</a> at <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive" >Internet Archive</a></li>

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://librivox.org/author/13" >Works by Plutarch</a> at <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox" >LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img src="/1e27cddd-bce0-59c7-b04a-b680bdfd7a2b.png"/></li>

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collection?collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman" >Perseus Project</a>: many texts of Plutarch and Pseudo-Plutarch in Greek and English</li>

<li >Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plutarchivitaep00doehgoog" >vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OUYJAQAAIAAJ" >vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee1DAAAAYAAJ" >vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s56zAAAAMAAJ" >vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=txNgAAAAMAAJ" >vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria)</a> (also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?adva=1&adv=1&tri=title_sort&t_relation=%22Notice+d%27ensemble+%3A+http%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fcb37341822f%22&q=plutarchi+vitae&lang=en" >via BNF</a>)</li>

<li >Collections of works in English translation: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/" >at University of Adelaide</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html" >at LacusCurtius</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Plutarch" >Project Gutenberg</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1802&Itemid=99999999" ><i >Lives</i>, trans. North (PDF)</a></li>

<li >Also in English translation (by <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden" >John Dryden</a>, 1631-1700): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/solon.html" >Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Solon</a></li>

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/13?primary_key=13&search_category=author&search_page=1&search_form=get_results" >Free Audiobooks by Plutarch from Librivox</a></li>

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<dt >Secondary material</dt>

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<ul >

<li ><cite class="citation encyclopaedia" >Karamanolis, George. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plutarch/" >"Plutarch"</a>. <i ><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy" >Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite></li>

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livius.org/pi-pm/plutarch/plutarch.htm" >Plutarch of Chaeronea</a> by Jona Lendering at Livius.Org</li>

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm" >The International Plutarch Society</a></li>

<li ><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bennozuiddam.com/Plutarch%20and%20God-eclipse%20in%20Christian%20Theology,%20Ploutarchos%202008,2009.pdf" >The relevance of Plutarch's book <i >De Defectu Oraculorum</i> for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society)</a></li>

</ul>

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<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:History/Plutarch" >Last edited 5 days ago</a> by an anonymous user</div>

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Plutarch

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