parkinson neuro

=<div>generic brain</div><div>neuro-development
<div>
</div><div>=</div><div> =https://thinkprogress.org/experts-warn-trumps-epa-policies-mean-more-cases-of-autism-41360fe83430/no lnxExperts warn Trump’s EPA policies mean more cases of autismSmall particles of air pollution can travel directly from the nose to the brain, causing damage.JOE ROMMMAR 1, 2019, 10:37 AMSome of the country’s leading experts on healthy brain development have come together to warn the public that President Donald Trump’s efforts to roll back science-based air pollution standards will come at a high cost to our children.Published in the American Journal of Public Health this week, these scientists and doctors cite “mounting evidence linking air pollution to neurodevelopmental disorders in children, like autism, ADHD, memory deficiencies and reduced IQ.”The article makes several specific recommendations for how the government can protect children, one of the most important being to “strengthen and enforce federal fuel efficiency standards.” As the article explains, “Increasing evidence links prenatal exposure to traffic-related air pollutants and PM2.5 [tiny particulates] to autism spectrum disorder.”But that’s in sharp contrast to the work being done by Trump’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which has started the process of weakening existing standards. The Trump administration released a proposal to roll back Obama-era federal fuel economy standards and revoke California’s ability to set its own fuel mileage and emissions standards. CREDIT: David McNew/Getty Images]Widespread disapproval greets Trump’s rollback of auto emissions and fuel efficiency standardsCo-author Dr. Irva Hertz-Picciotto, director of the University of California Davis Environmental Health Sciences Center funded by the National Institutes of Health, told ThinkProgress that starting with the Clean Air Act of 1970 — and for decades after — the EPA used the growing scientific evidence connecting serious health effects to air pollution as the basis for stronger and stronger air pollution rules.“But under our current administration, many of these rules are being rolled back,” she warned. This is despite the overwhelming evidence, she said, that “energy produced from fossil fuels has really caused a lot of premature death and illness in people for decades.”She explained that the reason she and her colleagues came together to write this article is that “we now have yet another reason besides the cardiovascular and respiratory impacts” to tighten air pollution standards: the impact on children’s brains.Hertz-Picciotto, who is also director of the Program in Environmental Epidemiology of Autism at UC Davis, has been researching the environmental causes of autism for many years. She points out that there is increasing evidence that the very small particles (PM2.5) associated with fossil fuel combustion can “travel directly from nasal passages to the brain.”PM2.5 is particulate matter (PM) smaller than 2.5 micrometers in diameter. In comparison, a strand of human hair is more than 20 times wider than PM2.5.Scientist have previously noted that the link between PM2.5 exposure and Alzheimer’s may also be due to the fact that tiny air pollution particles can travel from the nose to the brain.
Researchers have found that particulates from coal plants (like this one in Kansas) and vehicles increase the risk of dementia. Credit: AP Photo/Charlie RiedelTrump’s EPA policies risk more Alzheimer’s cases, doctors warnHertz-Picciotto explained that cutting carbon pollution is a double win because not only does it reduce the harmful particles, it also reduces the risk of global warming — which comes with a slew of other impacts that endanger children’s brains.
“Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires, which cause short-term, high-level exposure to combustion-related pollutants,” the study notes. Also, simply exposing pregnant women to higher and higher temperatures “increases risk for premature delivery, itself a risk factor for developmental delay.”
Since even low levels of the smallest particles are dangerous to humans, Trump’s plans to roll back EPA air pollution rules are even more cruel and immoral than they first appeared.
As the authors conclude, if their recommendations to tighten air pollution standards are taken seriously, “fewer children will face the challenge of living with neurodevelopmental disorders and more people will be able to fully participate in society across their life span.”</div><div>=<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/20/business/fact-check-paraquat-weed-killer-parkinsons.html">https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/20/business/fact-check-paraquat-weed-killer-parkinsons.html</a> no linkLONDON — Syngenta, the Swiss pesticide giant, claims on its website that data from an influential 2011 study shows that farmers who use the weed killer paraquat are less likely to develop Parkinson’s disease than the general population.However, Syngenta’s claim is at odds with the actual findings of the study, according to two of its authors.The 2011 study, carried out by the National Institutes of Health and researchers from other institutions around the world, found that people who used paraquat or another pesticide, called rotenone, were roughly two and a half times more likely to develop Parkinson’s.The work is known as the Farming and Movement Evaluation, or FAME, study. It drew on a sweeping United States government project called the Agricultural Heath Study, which tracked more than 80,000 farmers and their spouses, as well as other people who applied pesticides, in Iowa and North Carolina.
UNCERTAIN HARVESTThis Pesticide Is Prohibited in Britain. Why Is It Still Being Exported? DEC. 20, 2016
U.S. Regulator Signs Off on ChemChina-Syngenta Deal AUG. 22, 2016
Monsanto, in Bid for Syngenta, Reaches for a Business It Left Behind MAY 8, 2015
The FAME researchers identified 115 people from the Agricultural Health Study who developed Parkinson’s, and studied 110 of them who provided information on the pesticides they used.The study was influential even among some people who had been skeptics of a connection between the chemicals and the disease. Gary W. Miller, a professor of environmental health at Emory University, referred to a link between Parkinson’s and paraquat as a “red herring” in a 2007 publication. But while Dr. Miller said in a recent email exchange that he had concerns about some previous research making the connection, “the FAME data are strong and should be considered.” He said the study “appears to show a connection between paraquat exposure and Parkinson’s disease.”Because of the prominence of the FAME study, Syngenta addresses it on one of its websites, paraquat.com. Syngenta claims that the study shows that only 115 people had Parkinson’s out of the more than 80,000 people in the broader Agricultural Health Study. Therefore, “the incidence of Parkinson’s disease” in the study “appears to be lower than in the general U.S. population,” Syngenta says....Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">central nervous system</a> that mainly affects the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_system" title="Motor system" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">motor system</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a> The symptoms generally come on slowly over time. Early in the disease, the most obvious are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">shaking</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasticity" title="Spasticity" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">rigidity</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypokinesia#Bradykinesia" title="Hypokinesia" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">slowness of movement</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gait_abnormality" title="Gait abnormality" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">difficulty with walking</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Thinking</a> and behavioral problems may also occur. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Dementia</a> becomes common in the advanced stages of the disease. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Depression</a> and anxiety are also common occurring in more than a third of people with PD.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Sv2016-2" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[2]</a> Other symptoms include sensory, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_disorder" title="Sleep disorder" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">sleep</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">emotional</a> problems.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Sv2016-2" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[2]</a> The main motor symptoms are collectively called "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinsonism" title="Parkinsonism" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">parkinsonism</a>", or a "parkinsonian syndrome".<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-7" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[7]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Lancet2015-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a>The cause of Parkinson's disease is generally <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathy" title="Idiopathy" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">unknown</a>, but believed to involve both <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">genetic</a> and environmental factors. Those with a family member affected are more likely to get the disease themselves.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Lancet2015-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a> There is also an increased risk in people exposed to certain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">pesticides</a> and among those who have had prior <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_injury" title="Head injury" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">head injuries</a> while there is a reduced risk in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">tobacco smokers</a> and those who drink <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">coffee</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea" title="Tea" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">tea</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Lancet2015-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-8" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[8]</a> The motor symptoms of the disease result from the death of cells in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">substantia nigra</a>, a region of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">midbrain</a>. This results in not enough <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">dopamine</a> in these areas.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a> The reason for this <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">cell death</a> is poorly understood, but involves the build-up of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">proteins</a> into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewy_body" title="Lewy body" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Lewy bodies</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">neurons</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Lancet2015-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a> Diagnosis of typical cases is mainly based on symptoms, with tests such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">neuroimaging</a> being used to rule out other diseases.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a>There is no cure for Parkinson's disease.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a> Initial treatment is typically with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparkinson_medication" title="Antiparkinson medication" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">antiparkinson medication</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-DOPA" title="L-DOPA" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">L-DOPA</a> (levodopa), with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_agonist" title="Dopamine agonist" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">dopamine agonists</a> being used once levodopa becomes less effective. As the disease progresses and neurons continue to be lost, these medications become less effective while at the same time they produce a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">complication</a> marked by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyskinesia" title="Dyskinesia" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">involuntary writhing movements</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Sv2016-2" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[2]</a> Diet and some forms of rehabilitation have shown some effectiveness at improving symptoms.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid19691125-9" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[9]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Neuro2011-10" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[10]</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Surgery</a> to place <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectrode" title="Microelectrode" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">microelectrodes</a> for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_brain_stimulation" title="Deep brain stimulation" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">deep brain stimulation</a> has been used to reduce motor symptoms in severe cases where drugs are ineffective.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a> Evidence for treatments for the non-movement-related symptoms of PD, such as sleep disturbances and emotional problems, is less strong.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Lancet2015-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a>In 2015, PD affected 6.2 million people and resulted in about 117,400 deaths globally.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-GBD2015Pre-5" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[5]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-GBD2015De-6" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[6]</a> Parkinson's disease typically occurs in people over the age of 60, of which about one percent are affected.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-NIH2016-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Car2016-3" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[3]</a> Males are more often affected than females.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Lancet2015-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a> When it is seen in people before the age of 50, it is called young-onset PD.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-11" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[11]</a> The average life expectancy following diagnosis is between 7 and 14 years.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Sv2016-2" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[2]</a> The disease is named after the English doctor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Parkinson" title="James Parkinson" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">James Parkinson</a>, who published the first detailed description in An Essay on the Shaking Palsy, in 1817.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-An_Essay_on_the_Shaking_Palsy-12" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[12]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-13" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[13]</a> Public awareness campaigns include World Parkinson's Day (on the birthday of James Parkinson, 11 April) and the use of a red <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip" title="Tulip" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">tulip</a> as the symbol of the disease.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid18175393-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a> People with parkinsonism who have increased the public's awareness of the condition include actor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J.Fox" title="Michael J. Fox" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Michael J. Fox</a>, Olympic cyclist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davis_Phinney" title="Davis Phinney" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Davis Phinney</a>, and late professional boxer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Muhammad Ali</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-MJF_TIME-15" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[15]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Mac2008-16" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[16]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Ali_NN_comment-17" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[17]</a><div class="thumb tright" style="clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border: 1px solid 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pyaviuohsk2ufrpvdjrkomzbz86ef="pYAviUohSK2UfrpvdJrKOMzbz86ef" aifu5yh0ayjklzer8e3ko5b6nr5s2y8qaaaaaelftksuqmcc="AIfU5yH0AyJklzeR8E3kO5B6nR5s2Y8qAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" position="position" absolute="absolute" cursor="cursor" pointer="pointer" border="border" none="none" important="important" top="top" auto="auto" left="left" px="px" margin="margin" right="right" bottom="bottom" xmlns:data="data"></a></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parkinsons_disease.webm" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" 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style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" f2000="F2000" fsvg="Fsvg" viewbox="viewBox" width="width" height="height" cg="Cg" id="id" magnify-clip="magnify-clip" fill="fill" fff="fff" stroke="stroke" cpath="Cpath" bigbox="bigbox" m1.509="M1.509" h10.99v7.919h-10.99z="h10.99v7.919h-10.99z" smallbox="smallbox" m-1.499="M-1.499" h5.943v4.904h-5.943z="h5.943v4.904h-5.943z" fg="Fg" display="display" block="block" text-indent="text-indent" px="px" white-space="white-space" nowrap="nowrap" overflow="overflow" hidden="hidden" user-select="user-select" none="none" xmlns="xmlns" xmlns:data="data"></a><h2 style="background: none; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; border: 0px; display: inline; line-height: 1.3;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parkinsons_disease.webm" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" f2000="F2000" fsvg="Fsvg" viewbox="viewBox" width="width" height="height" cg="Cg" id="id" magnify-clip="magnify-clip" fill="fill" fff="fff" stroke="stroke" cpath="Cpath" bigbox="bigbox" m1.509="M1.509" h10.99v7.919h-10.99z="h10.99v7.919h-10.99z" smallbox="smallbox" m-1.499="M-1.499" h5.943v4.904h-5.943z="h5.943v4.904h-5.943z" fg="Fg" display="display" block="block" text-indent="text-indent" px="px" white-space="white-space" nowrap="nowrap" overflow="overflow" hidden="hidden" user-select="user-select" none="none" xmlns:data="data">Contents</a></h2>  [<a role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink" style="background: none; cursor: pointer;">hide</a>] </div><ul style="list-style-type: none; margin: 0.3em 0px; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Classification" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">1Classification</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Signs_and_symptoms" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2Signs and symptoms</a><ul style="list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Motor" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2.1Motor</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Neuropsychiatric" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2.2Neuropsychiatric</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Other" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2.3Other</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Causes" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">3Causes</a><ul style="list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Environmental_factors" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">3.1Environmental factors</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Genetics" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">3.2Genetics</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Pathology" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4Pathology</a><ul style="list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Anatomical" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4.1Anatomical</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Pathophysiology" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4.2Pathophysiology</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Brain_cell_death" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4.3Brain cell death</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Diagnosis" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">5Diagnosis</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Prevention" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6Prevention</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Management" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">7Management</a><ul style="list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Medications" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">7.1Medications</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Surgery" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">7.2Surgery</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Rehabilitation" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">7.3Rehabilitation</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Palliative_care" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">7.4Palliative care</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Other_treatments" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">7.5Other treatments</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Prognosis" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">8Prognosis</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Epidemiology" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">9Epidemiology</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#History" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">10History</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Society_and_culture" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">11Society and culture</a><ul style="list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Cost" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">11.1Cost</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Advocacy" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">11.2Advocacy</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Notable_cases" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">11.3Notable cases</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Research" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">12Research</a><ul style="list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Animal_models" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">12.1Animal models</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Gene_therapy" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">12.2Gene therapy</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Neuroprotective_treatments" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">12.3Neuroprotective treatments</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Neural_transplantation" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">12.4Neural transplantation</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#References" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">13References</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#External_links" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">14External links</a></li></ul></div></div><h2 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); font-weight: normal; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3;">Classification</h2>The term <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinsonism" title="Parkinsonism" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">parkinsonism</a> is used for a motor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrome" title="Syndrome" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">syndrome</a> whose main symptoms are tremor at rest, stiffness, slowing of movement and postural instability. Parkinsonian syndromes can be divided into four subtypes, according to their origin:<ol style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 14px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">primary or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathy" title="Idiopathy" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">idiopathic</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">secondary or acquired</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">hereditary</a> parkinsonism, and</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson_plus_syndrome" title="Parkinson plus syndrome" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">Parkinson plus syndromes</a> or multiple system degeneration.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Jankovic2008-18" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[18]</a></li></ol>Parkinson's disease is the most common form of parkinsonism and is usually defined as "primary" parkinsonism, meaning parkinsonism with no external identifiable cause.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid15172778-19" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[19]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Jankovic_book-Epidemiology-20" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[20]</a> In recent years several genes that are directly related to some cases of Parkinson's disease have been discovered. As much as this conflicts with the definition of Parkinson's disease as an idiopathic illness, genetic parkinsonism disorders with a similar clinical course to PD are generally included under the Parkinson's disease label. The terms "familial Parkinson's disease" and "sporadic Parkinson's disease" can be used to differentiate genetic from truly idiopathic forms of the disease.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid18398010-21" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[21]</a>Usually classified as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement disorder" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">movement disorder</a>, PD also gives rise to several non-motor types of symptoms such as sensory deficits,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid20206672-22" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[22]</a> cognitive difficulties, and sleep problems. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson_plus_syndrome" title="Parkinson plus syndrome" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">Parkinson plus diseases</a> are primary parkinsonisms which present additional features.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid15172778-19" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[19]</a> They include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_system_atrophy" title="Multiple system atrophy" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">multiple system atrophy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_supranuclear_palsy" title="Progressive supranuclear palsy" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">progressive supranuclear palsy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticobasal_degeneration" title="Corticobasal degeneration" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">corticobasal degeneration</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia_with_Lewy_bodies" title="Dementia with Lewy bodies" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">dementia with Lewy bodies</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid15172778-19" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[19]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid20506312-23" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[23]</a>In terms of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathophysiology" title="Pathophysiology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">pathophysiology</a>, PD is considered a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synucleinopathies" title="Synucleinopathies" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">synucleiopathy</a> due to an abnormal accumulation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-synuclein" title="Alpha-synuclein" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">alpha-synuclein</a> protein in the brain in the form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewy_body" title="Lewy body" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">Lewy bodies</a>, as opposed to other diseases such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">Alzheimer's disease</a> where the brain accumulates <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau_protein" title="Tau protein" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">tau protein</a> in the form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurofibrillary_tangle" title="Neurofibrillary tangle" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">neurofibrillary tangles</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid16489609-24" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[24]</a> Nevertheless, there is clinical and pathological overlap between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauopathy" title="Tauopathy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">tauopathies</a> and synucleinopathies. The most typical symptom of Alzheimer's disease, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">dementia</a>, occurs in advanced stages of PD, while it is common to find neurofibrillary tangles in brains affected by PD.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid16489609-24" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[24]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia_with_Lewy_bodies" title="Dementia with Lewy bodies" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">Dementia with Lewy bodies</a> (DLB) is another synucleinopathy that has similarities with PD, and especially with the subset of PD cases with dementia. However, the relationship between PD and DLB is complex and still has to be clarified.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid19173762-25" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[25]</a> They may represent parts of a continuum or they may be separate diseases.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid19173762-25" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[25]</a>...<h3 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom: 0px; line-height: 1.6;">Environmental factors</h3><div class="thumb tright" style="clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); padding: 3px; background-color: rgb(248, 249, 250); text-align: center; overflow: hidden; width: 222px;">
<div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" f2000="F2000" fsvg="Fsvg" viewbox="viewBox" width="width" height="height" cg="Cg" id="id" magnify-clip="magnify-clip" fill="fill" fff="fff" stroke="stroke" cpath="Cpath" bigbox="bigbox" m1.509="M1.509" h10.99v7.919h-10.99z="h10.99v7.919h-10.99z" smallbox="smallbox" m-1.499="M-1.499" h5.943v4.904h-5.943z="h5.943v4.904h-5.943z" fg="Fg" display="display" block="block" text-indent="text-indent" px="px" white-space="white-space" nowrap="nowrap" overflow="overflow" hidden="hidden" user-select="user-select" none="none" xmlns="xmlns" xmlns:data="data" /></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" f2000="F2000" fsvg="Fsvg" viewbox="viewBox" width="width" height="height" cg="Cg" id="id" magnify-clip="magnify-clip" fill="fill" fff="fff" stroke="stroke" cpath="Cpath" bigbox="bigbox" m1.509="M1.509" h10.99v7.919h-10.99z="h10.99v7.919h-10.99z" smallbox="smallbox" m-1.499="M-1.499" h5.943v4.904h-5.943z="h5.943v4.904h-5.943z" fg="Fg" display="display" block="block" text-indent="text-indent" px="px" white-space="white-space" nowrap="nowrap" overflow="overflow" hidden="hidden" user-select="user-select" none="none" xmlns="xmlns" xmlns:data="data">U.S. Army helicopter spraying </a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Agent Orange</a> over Vietnamese agricultural land during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Vietnam War</a></div></div></div>A number of environmental factors have been associated with an increased risk of Parkinson's, including pesticide exposure, head injuries, and living in the country or farming.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Noy2012-46" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[46]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-47" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[47]</a> Rural environments and the drinking of well water may be risks, as they are indirect measures of exposure to pesticides.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid16713924-48" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[48]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Veterans-49" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[49]</a>Implicated agents include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">insecticides</a>, primarily <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorpyrifos" title="Chlorpyrifos" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">chlorpyrifos</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organochloride" title="Organochloride" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">organochlorines</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-50" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[50]</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">pesticides</a>, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotenone" title="Rotenone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">rotenone</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraquat" title="Paraquat" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">paraquat</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">herbicides</a>, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">Agent Orange</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziram" title="Ziram" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">ziram</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid16713924-48" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[48]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-Veterans-49" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[49]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-51" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[51]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-52" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[52]</a> Exposure to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">heavy metals</a> has been proposed to be a risk factor, through possible accumulation in the substantia nigra, but studies on the issue have been inconclusive.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid16713924-48" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[48]</a><h3 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom: 0px; line-height: 1.6;">Genetics</h3><div class="thumb tleft" style="float: left; clear: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); padding: 3px; background-color: rgb(248, 249, 250); text-align: center; overflow: hidden; width: 222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structure_of_parkin.png" class="image" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Structure_of_parkin.png/220px-Structure_of_parkin.png" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Structure_of_parkin.png/330px-Structure_of_parkin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Structure_of_parkin.png/440px-Structure_of_parkin.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" style="border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structure_of_parkin.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" f2000="F2000" fsvg="Fsvg" viewbox="viewBox" width="width" height="height" cg="Cg" id="id" magnify-clip="magnify-clip" fill="fill" fff="fff" stroke="stroke" cpath="Cpath" bigbox="bigbox" m1.509="M1.509" h10.99v7.919h-10.99z="h10.99v7.919h-10.99z" smallbox="smallbox" m-1.499="M-1.499" h5.943v4.904h-5.943z="h5.943v4.904h-5.943z" fg="Fg" display="display" block="block" text-indent="text-indent" px="px" white-space="white-space" nowrap="nowrap" overflow="overflow" hidden="hidden" user-select="user-select" none="none" xmlns="xmlns" xmlns:data="data" /></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structure_of_parkin.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" f2000="F2000" fsvg="Fsvg" viewbox="viewBox" width="width" height="height" cg="Cg" id="id" magnify-clip="magnify-clip" fill="fill" fff="fff" stroke="stroke" cpath="Cpath" bigbox="bigbox" m1.509="M1.509" h10.99v7.919h-10.99z="h10.99v7.919h-10.99z" smallbox="smallbox" m-1.499="M-1.499" h5.943v4.904h-5.943z="h5.943v4.904h-5.943z" fg="Fg" display="display" block="block" text-indent="text-indent" px="px" white-space="white-space" nowrap="nowrap" overflow="overflow" hidden="hidden" user-select="user-select" none="none" xmlns="xmlns" xmlns:data="data">Parkin crystal structure</a></div></div></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structure_of_parkin.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" c="C" fxml="Fxml" version="version" d="D" encoding="encoding" utf-8="UTF-8" standalone="standalone" no="no" f="F" e="E" a="A" csvg="Csvg" http="http" fwww.w3.org="Fwww.w3.org" f2000="F2000" fsvg="Fsvg" viewbox="viewBox" width="width" height="height" cg="Cg" id="id" magnify-clip="magnify-clip" fill="fill" fff="fff" stroke="stroke" cpath="Cpath" bigbox="bigbox" m1.509="M1.509" h10.99v7.919h-10.99z="h10.99v7.919h-10.99z" smallbox="smallbox" m-1.499="M-1.499" h5.943v4.904h-5.943z="h5.943v4.904h-5.943z" fg="Fg" display="display" block="block" text-indent="text-indent" px="px" white-space="white-space" nowrap="nowrap" overflow="overflow" hidden="hidden" user-select="user-select" none="none" xmlns="xmlns" xmlns:data="data">PD traditionally has been considered a non-genetic disorder; however, around 15% of individuals with PD have a first-degree relative who has the disease.</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid15172778-19" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[19]</a> At least 5% of people are now known to have forms of the disease that occur because of a mutation of one of several specific genes.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#cite_note-lesage-53" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[53]</a>



=<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease</a><h3 style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom: 0px; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6;">Other hypotheses</h3>A neurovascular hypothesis has been proposed which states that poor functioning of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">blood–brain barrier</a> may be involved.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-70" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[70]</a>The cellular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">homeostasis</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biometal(biology)" title="Biometal (biology)" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">biometals</a> such as ionic copper, iron, and zinc is disrupted in AD, though it remains unclear whether this is produced by or causes the changes in proteins. These ions affect and are affected by tau, APP, and APOE,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-pmid24971061-71" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[71]</a> and their dysregulation may cause <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">oxidative stress</a> that may contribute to the pathology.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-72" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[72]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-73" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[73]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-74" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[74]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-75" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[75]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-76" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[76]</a> The quality of some of these studies has been criticised,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-77" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[77]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-78" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[78]</a> and the link remains controversial.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-79" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[79]</a> The majority of researchers do not support a causal connection with aluminium.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-80" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[80]</a>Smoking is a significant AD risk factor.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-81" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[81]</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation#Systemic_effects" title="Inflammation" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">Systemic markers</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">innate immune system</a> are risk factors for late-onset AD.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-82" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[82]</a>There is tentative evidence that exposure to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">air pollution</a> may be a contributing factor to the development of Alzheimer's disease.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-83" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128);">[83]</a>An infection with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirochaete" title="Spirochaete" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">Spirochetes</a> (a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">bacterium</a>) in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodontitis" title="Periodontitis" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">gum disease</a> may cause <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">dementia</a> and may be involved in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">pathogenesis</a> of Alzheimer's disease.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-84" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[84]</a>Retrogenesis is a medical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">hypothesis</a> about the development and progress of Alzheimer's disease proposed by Barry Reisberg in the 1980s.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-Kluger1999-85" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[85]</a> The hypothesis is that just as the fetus goes through a process of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodevelopment" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodevelopment" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">neurodevelopment</a> beginning with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurulation" title="Neurulation" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">neurulation</a> and ending with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelination" class="mw-redirect" title="Myelination" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">myelination</a>, the brains of people with AD go through a reverse <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodegeneration" title="Neurodegeneration" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">neurodegeneration</a> process starting with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demyelination" class="mw-redirect" title="Demyelination" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">demyelination</a> and death of axons (white matter) and ending with the death of grey matter.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-Laks2015-86" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[86]</a> Likewise the hypothesis is, that as infants go through states of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">cognitive development</a>, people with AD go through the reverse process of progressive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_impairment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive impairment" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">cognitive impairment</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-Kluger1999-85" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[85]</a> Reisberg developed the caregiving assessment tool known as "FAST" (Functional Assessment Staging Tool) which he says allows those caring for AD patients to identify the stages of disease progression and that provides advice about the kind of care needed at each stage.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-Kluger1999-85" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[85]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease#cite_note-Carson2015-87" style="text-decoration-line: none; color: rgb(11, 0, 128); background: none;">[87]</a><div class="g" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 26px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><div data-hveid="88" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQFQhYKAEwAQ"><div class="rc" style="position: relative;"><h3 class="r" style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/basics/definition/con-20028488" style="cursor: pointer;">Parkinson's disease - Mayo Clinic</a></h3><div class="s" style="max-width: 48em; line-height: 18px;"><div class="f kv SWb" style="height: 18px; line-height: 16px; white-space: nowrap;"><cite class="Rm" style="font-style: normal;">www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/basics/.../con-20028488</cite><div class="action-menu ab_ctl" style="display: inline; 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It develops gradually, sometimes starting with a barely noticeable ...</a><div class="osl" style="margin-top: 0px;"><a class="fl" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=related:www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/basics/definition/con-20028488+parkinsons&tbo=1&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQHwhdMAE" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;">‎</a><a class="fl" href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/basics/symptoms/con-20028488" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">Symptoms</a> · ‎<a class="fl" href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/basics/treatment/con-20028488" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">Treatments and drugs</a> · ‎<a class="fl" href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/basics/causes/con-20028488" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">Causes</a> · ‎<a class="fl" href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/basics/tests-diagnosis/con-20028488" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">Tests and diagnosis</a></div></div></div></div></div><div class="g" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 26px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><div data-hveid="99" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQFQhjKAIwAg"><div class="rc" style="position: relative;"><h3 class="r" style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/what-is-parkinsons" style="cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">What Is Parkinson's? | National Parkinson Foundation</a></h3><div class="s" style="max-width: 48em; line-height: 18px;"><div class="f kv _SWb" style="height: 18px; line-height: 16px; white-space: nowrap;"><cite class="Rm" style="font-style: normal;">www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/what-is-parkinsons</cite><div class="action-menu ab_ctl" style="display: inline; position: relative; margin: 1px 3px 0px; user-select: none; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="Fmb ab_button" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=parkinsons&oq=parkinson&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57j0l4.9137j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#" id="am-b2" aria-label="Result details" aria-expanded="false" aria-haspopup="true" role="button" jsaction="m.tdd;keydown:m.hbke;keypress:m.mskpe" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQ7B0IZTAC" style="border-radius: 0px; cursor: default; font-weight: bold; height: 12px; line-height: 27px; margin: 1px 0px 2px; min-width: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; transition: none; user-select: none; background-image: none; border: 0px; box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px 0px; filter: none; width: 13px; text-decoration-line: none; display: inline-block;"><span class="mn-dwn-arw" style="border-color: rgb(0, 102, 33) transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 5px 4px 0px; width: 0px; height: 0px; margin-left: 3px; top: 8px; margin-top: -4px; position: absolute; left: 0px;" /></a><div class="action-menu-panel ab_dropdown" role="menu" tabindex="-1" jsaction="keydown:m.hdke;mouseover:m.hdhne;mouseout:m.hdhue" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQqR8IZjAC" style="background-image: initial; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: auto; top: 12px; z-index: 3; transition: opacity 0.218s; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0px 2px 4px; left: 0px; visibility: hidden;"><ol style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px;"><li class="action-menu-item ab_dropdownitem" role="menuitem" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; list-style: none; user-select: none; cursor: pointer;"><a class="fl" href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8G2CHbaDwskJ:www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/what-is-parkinsons+&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /></li><li class="action-menu-item ab_dropdownitem" role="menuitem" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; list-style: none; user-select: none; cursor: pointer;"><a class="fl" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=related:www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/what-is-parkinsons+parkinsons&tbo=1&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQHwhoMAI" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /></li></ol></div></div></div><a class="fl" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=related:www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/what-is-parkinsons+parkinsons&tbo=1&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQHwhoMAI" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;">Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative brain disorder that progresses slowly in most people. Most people's symptoms take years to develop, and they ...</a></div></div></div></div><div class="g" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 28px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><div data-hveid="105" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQFQhpKAMwAw"><div class="rc" style="position: relative;"><h3 class="r" style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" style="cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">Parkinson's disease - Wikipedia</a></h3><div class="s" style="max-width: 48em; line-height: 18px;"><div class="f kv _SWb" style="height: 18px; line-height: 16px; white-space: nowrap;"><cite class="Rm" style="font-style: normal;">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease</cite><div class="action-menu ab_ctl" style="display: inline; position: relative; margin: 1px 3px 0px; user-select: none; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="Fmb ab_button" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=parkinsons&oq=parkinson&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57j0l4.9137j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#" id="am-b3" aria-label="Result details" aria-expanded="false" aria-haspopup="true" role="button" jsaction="m.tdd;keydown:m.hbke;keypress:m.mskpe" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQ7B0IazAD" style="border-radius: 0px; cursor: default; font-weight: bold; height: 12px; line-height: 27px; margin: 1px 0px 2px; min-width: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; transition: none; user-select: none; background-image: none; border: 0px; box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px 0px; filter: none; width: 13px; text-decoration-line: none; display: inline-block;"><span class="mn-dwn-arw" style="border-color: rgb(0, 102, 33) transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 5px 4px 0px; width: 0px; height: 0px; margin-left: 3px; top: 8px; margin-top: -4px; position: absolute; left: 0px;" /></a><div class="action-menu-panel ab_dropdown" role="menu" tabindex="-1" jsaction="keydown:m.hdke;mouseover:m.hdhne;mouseout:m.hdhue" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQqR8IbDAD" style="background-image: initial; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: auto; top: 12px; z-index: 3; transition: opacity 0.218s; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0px 2px 4px; left: 0px; visibility: hidden;"><ol style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px;"><li class="action-menu-item ab_dropdownitem" role="menuitem" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; list-style: none; user-select: none; cursor: pointer;"><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /></li></ol></div></div></div><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;">Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system. The symptoms generally come on slowly over time. Early in the disease, the most obvious are shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement, and difficulty with walking.</a><div class="cwc" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQrz0IbzAD" style="display: table; margin: 5px 0px;"><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><div class="sgd" style="display: table-row; vertical-align: top;"><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><div class="qgd" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQsz0IcCgAMAM" style="display: table-cell;"><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I_m4MM_ymBgJ:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_disease+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;">Symptoms‎: ‎</a><a class="fl" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tremor" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">Shaking</a>‎, ‎<a class="fl" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasticity" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">rigidity</a>‎, ‎<a class="fl" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypokinesia#Bradykinesia" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">slowness of move...</a></div><div class="pgd" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQsz0IdCgBMAM" style="display: table-cell; padding-left: 15px; vertical-align: baseline;">Usual onset‎: ‎Age over 60</div></div><div class="sgd" style="display: table-row; vertical-align: top;"><div class="qgd" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQsz0IdSgCMAM" style="display: table-cell;">Treatment‎: ‎Medications, surgery</div><div class="pgd" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQsz0IdigDMAM" style="display: table-cell; padding-left: 15px; vertical-align: baseline;">Medication‎: ‎<a class="fl" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-DOPA" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">L-DOPA</a>‎, ‎<a class="fl" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_agonist" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer;">dopamine agonists</a>
<div class="NId"><div class="srg"><div class="g" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 28px;"><div data-hveid="158" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQFQieASgDMAo"><div class="rc" style="position: relative;"><h3 class="r" style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001762/" style="cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">Parkinson Disease - National Library of Medicine - PubMed Health</a></h3><div class="s" style="max-width: 48em; line-height: 18px;"><div class="f kv _SWb" style="height: 18px; line-height: 16px; white-space: nowrap;"><cite class="Rm" style="font-style: normal;">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001762/</cite><div class="action-menu ab_ctl" style="display: inline; position: relative; margin: 1px 3px 0px; user-select: none; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="Fmb ab_button" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=parkinsons&oq=parkinson&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57j0l4.9137j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#" id="am-b10" aria-label="Result details" aria-expanded="false" aria-haspopup="true" role="button" jsaction="m.tdd;keydown:m.hbke;keypress:m.mskpe" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQ7B0IoAEwCg" style="border-radius: 0px; cursor: default; font-weight: bold; height: 12px; line-height: 27px; margin: 1px 0px 2px; min-width: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; transition: none; user-select: none; background-image: none; border: 0px; box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px 0px; filter: none; width: 13px; text-decoration-line: none; display: inline-block;"><span class="mn-dwn-arw" style="border-color: rgb(0, 102, 33) transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 5px 4px 0px; width: 0px; height: 0px; margin-left: 3px; top: 8px; margin-top: -4px; position: absolute; left: 0px;" /></a><div class="action-menu-panel ab_dropdown" role="menu" tabindex="-1" jsaction="keydown:m.hdke;mouseover:m.hdhne;mouseout:m.hdhue" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQqR8IoQEwCg" style="background-image: initial; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: auto; top: 12px; z-index: 3; transition: opacity 0.218s; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0px 2px 4px; left: 0px; visibility: hidden;"><ol style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px;"><li class="action-menu-item ab_dropdownitem" role="menuitem" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; list-style: none; user-select: none; cursor: pointer;"><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:HSvReNirQcoJ:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001762/+&cd=11&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;" /></li></ol></div></div></div><a class="fl" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:HSvReNirQcoJ:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001762/+&cd=11&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us" style="text-decoration-line: none; cursor: pointer; display: block; padding: 7px 18px; outline: 0px;">Parkinson's is a disease of the nervous system that mostly affects older people. It typically begins after the age of 50. The disease can be very hard to live with ...</a></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="NId"><div class="srg"><div class="g" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 26px;"><div data-hveid="164" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQ1CcIpAEoADAL"><div class="rc" style="position: relative;"><h3 class="r" style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/parkinsons-disease-and-pesticides-whats-the-connection/" style="cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">Parkinson's Disease and Pesticides: What's the Connection ...</a></h3><div class="s" style="max-width: 48em; line-height: 18px;"><div class="f kv SWb" style="height: 18px; line-height: 16px; white-space: nowrap;"><cite class="Rm" style="font-style: normal;">https://www.scientificamerican.com/.../parkinsons-disease-and-pesticides-whats-the-conn...</cite></div>Scientists find a way chemicals may contribute to Parkinson's.</div></div></div></div><div class="g" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 26px;"><div data-hveid="166" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQ1CcIpgEoATAM"><div class="rc" style="position: relative;"><h3 class="r" style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://www.wired.com/2010/06/ff_sergeys_search/" style="cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">Sergey Brin's Search for a Parkinson's Cure | WIRED</a></h3><div class="s" style="max-width: 48em; line-height: 18px;"><div class="f kv SWb" style="height: 18px; line-height: 16px; white-space: nowrap;"><cite class="Rm" style="font-style: normal;">https://www.wired.com/2010/06/ff_sergeys_search/</cite></div>Not everyone with Parkinson's has an LRRK2 mutation; nor will everyone with the mutation get the disease. But it does increase the chance ...</div></div></div></div><div class="g" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 28px;"><div data-hveid="168" data-ved="0ahUKEwiW_oH15-rTAhXqqFQKHUb-BEUQ1CcIqAEoAjAN"><div class="rc" style="position: relative;"><h3 class="r" style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://www.dangerandplay.com/2016/08/12/hillary-clinton-has-parkinsons-disease-physician-confirms/" style="cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">Hillary Clinton Has Parkinson's Disease, Physician Confirms</a></h3><div class="s" style="max-width: 48em; line-height: 18px;"><div class="f kv SWb" style="height: 18px; line-height: 16px; white-space: nowrap;"><cite class="Rm" style="font-style: normal;">https://www.dangerandplay.com/.../hillary-clinton-has-parkinsons-disease-physician-con...</cite></div>It should be noted that such dyskinesias are sufficiently common with long term treatment that they have a name: Parkinson's Disease ...</div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div>=</div></div>