Entheogens

<b>An entheogen ("generating the divine within") is a chemical substance used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context that may be synthesized or obtained from natural species.</b>

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<h1 id="firstHeading" lang="en">Entheogen</h1>

<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>

<div role="note">This entry covers <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive" title="Psychoactive">psychoactive</a> substances in a spiritual context. For general information about them, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">hallucinogen</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a>. For the German musical group see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenic_(band)" title="Entheogenic (band)">Entheogenic (band)</a></div>

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Flowering <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi" title="Echinopsis pachanoi">San Pedro</a>, an entheogenic cactus that has been used for over 3,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Today the vast majority of extracted mescaline is from columnar cacti, not vulnerable <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></div>

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Laboratory synthetic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">mescaline</a>. Mescaline was the first <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">psychedelic</a>compound to be extracted and isolated from nature (from peyote).<sup id="cite_ref-3"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></div>

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<p>An <b>entheogen</b> ("generating the divine within")<sup id="cite_ref-4"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substance</a> used in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanic</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> context<sup id="cite_ref-5"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> that often induces <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_states_of_consciousness" title="Altered states of consciousness">psychological</a> or physiological changes.

Entheogens have been used to supplement many diverse practices geared towards achieving <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendence</a>, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayer</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_art" title="Psychedelic art">psychedelic art</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanting" title="Chanting">chanting</a>, and multiple forms of music. They have also been historically employed in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a> via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy" title="Psychedelic therapy">psychedelic therapy</a>.

Entheogens have been used in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritualized</a> context for thousands of years; their religious significance is well established in anthropological and modern contexts. Examples of traditional entheogens include traditional <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelics" title="Psychedelics">psychedelics</a> like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">psilocybin mushrooms</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca</a>, psychedelic-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociatives" title="Dissociatives">dissociatives</a> like <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernanthe_iboga" title="Tabernanthe iboga">Tabernanthe iboga</a></i>, atypical psychedelics like <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_divinorum" title="Salvia divinorum">Salvia divinorum</a></i>, quasi-psychedelics like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliriants" title="Deliriants">deliriants</a> like <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i>. Traditionally a tea, admixture, or potion like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhang" title="Bhang">bhang</a> is the preferred mode of ingestion.

With the advent of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, there now exist many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthetic</a> drugs with similar psychoactive properties, many derived from the aforementioned plants. Many pure <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_compound" title="Active compound">active compounds</a> with psychoactive properties have been isolated from these respective organisms and chemically synthesized, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">mescaline</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">psilocybin</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyltryptamine" title="Dimethyltryptamine">DMT</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvinorin_A" title="Salvinorin A">salvinorin A</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">ibogaine</a>,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergine" title="Ergine">ergine</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">muscimol</a>. Semi-synthetic (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysergic_acid_diethylamide" title="Lysergic acid diethylamide">LSD</a> used by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-American_Church" title="Neo-American Church">Neo-American Church</a>) and synthetic drugs (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipropyltryptamine" title="Dipropyltryptamine">DPT</a> used by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_the_True_Inner_Light" title="Temple of the True Inner Light">Temple of the True Inner Light</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2C-B" title="2C-B">2C-B</a> used by the<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangoma" title="Sangoma">Sangoma</a>) have also been developed.<sup id="cite_ref-2cb-Sangoma-evolver_6-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-2cb-Sangoma-evolver-6">[6]</a></sup> Cannabis is the world's most widely used psychedelic drug, though it is more accurately referred to as a quasi-psychedelic drug, since its effect profile lacks the hallucinogenic and cognitive effects of traditional psychedelics.

More broadly, the term <i>entheogen</i> is used to refer to any psychoactive drugs when used for their religious or spiritual effects, whether or not in a formal religious or traditional structure. This terminology is often chosen to contrast with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">recreational use</a> of the same drugs. Studies such as Timothy Leary's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh_Chapel_Experiment" title="Marsh Chapel Experiment">Marsh Chapel Experiment</a> and Roland Griffiths' <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3537171/">psilocybin studies at Johns Hopkins</a> have documented reports of mystical/spiritual/religious experiences from participants who were administered psychoactive drugs in controlled trials. Ongoing research is limited due to widespread <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_(drugs)" title="Prohibition (drugs)">drug prohibition</a>; however, some countries have legislation that allows for traditional entheogen use.

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<h2>Contents</h2>

  [<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#" id="togglelink">hide</a>] </div>

<ul>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Etymology">1Etymology</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Entheogens">2Entheogens</a>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Biota">2.1Biota</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Chemicals">2.2Chemicals</a></li>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Controversial_entheogens">3Controversial entheogens</a>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Religious_use">3.1Religious use</a>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Alcohol">3.1.1Alcohol</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Kava_culture">3.1.2Kava culture</a></li>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Usage">4Usage</a>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Use_and_abuse">4.1Use and abuse</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Cultural_use">4.2Cultural use</a>

<ul>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Africa">4.2.1Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Americas">4.2.2Americas</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Europe">4.2.4Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Middle_East">4.2.5Middle East</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Oceania">4.2.6Oceania</a></li>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Religious_use_2">4.3Religious use</a>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Prohibition">4.3.1Prohibition</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Judaism_and_Christianity">4.3.2Judaism and Christianity</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Buddhism">4.3.3Buddhism</a></li>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Archaeological_record">5Archaeological record</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Classical_mythology_and_cults">6Classical mythology and cults</a>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Assassins">6.1Assassins</a></li>

</ul>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Research">7Research</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Legal_status_of_entheogens">8Legal status of entheogens</a>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Australia">8.1Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#United_States">8.2United States</a></li>

</ul>

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Literature">9Literature</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#References">10References</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Further_reading">11Further reading</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#External_links">12External links</a></li>

</ul>

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<h2>Etymology[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</h2>

<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> <i>entheogen</i> was coined in 1979 by a group of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">ethnobotanists</a> and scholars of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythology" title="Mythology">mythology</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_A.P.Ruck" title="Carl A. P. Ruck">Carl A. P. Ruck</a>, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Evans_Schultes" title="Richard Evans Schultes">Richard Evans Schultes</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Ott" title="Jonathan Ott">Jonathan Ott</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Gordon_Wasson" title="R. Gordon Wasson">R. Gordon Wasson</a>). The term is derived from two words of ancient Greek, ἔνθεος (<i>entheos</i>) and γενέσθαι (<i>genesthai</i>). The adjective <i>entheos</i> translates to English as "full of the god, inspired, possessed", and is the root of the English word "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthusiasm" title="Enthusiasm">enthusiasm</a>." The Greeks used it as a term of praise for poets and other artists. <i>Genesthai</i> means "to come into being." Thus, an entheogen is a drug that causes one to become inspired or to experience feelings of inspiration, often in a religious or "spiritual" manner.<sup id="cite_ref-Godlaski2011_7-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Godlaski2011-7">[7]</a></sup>

Entheogen was coined as a replacement for the terms <i>hallucinogen</i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">psychedelic</a></i>. <i>Hallucinogen</i> was popularized by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a>'s experiences with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">mescaline</a>, which were published as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doors_of_Perception" title="The Doors of Perception">The Doors of Perception</a></i> in 1954.<i>Psychedelic</i>, in contrast, is a Greek neologism for "mind manifest", and was coined by psychiatrist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Osmond" title="Humphry Osmond">Humphry Osmond</a>; Huxley was a volunteer in experiments Osmond was conducting on mescaline.

Ruck et al. argued that the term <i>hallucinogen</i> was inappropriate owing to its etymological relationship to words relating to delirium and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">insanity</a>. The term <i>psychedelic</i> was also seen as problematic, owing to the similarity in sound to words pertaining to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a> and also due to the fact that it had become irreversibly associated with various connotations of 1960s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_culture" title="Pop culture">pop culture</a>. In modern usage <i>entheogen</i> may be used synonymously with these terms, or it may be chosen to contrast with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">recreational use</a> of the same drugs. The meanings of the term <i>entheogen</i> were formally defined by Ruck et al.:</p>

<p>In a strict sense, only those vision-producing drugs that can be shown to have figured in shamanic or religious rites would be designated entheogens, but in a looser sense, the term could also be applied to other drugs, both natural and artificial, that induce alterations of consciousness similar to those documented for ritual ingestion of traditional entheogens.</p>

<div><cite>— Ruck et al, 1979, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs<sup id="cite_ref-8"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup></cite></div>

</blockquote>

<h2>Entheogens[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Entheogens">edit</a>]</h2>

<h3>Biota[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biota">edit</a>]</h3>

<div role="note">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_plants" title="Psychedelic plants">Psychedelic plants</a></div>

<p>In essence, all <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">psychoactive drugs</a> that are biosynthesized in nature by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biota_(taxonomy)" title="Biota (taxonomy)">cytota</a> (cellular life), can be used in an entheogenic context or with entheogenic intent. To exclude non-psychoactive drugs that sometimes also are used in spiritual context, the term "entheogen" refers primarily to drugs that have been categorized based on their historical use. Toxicity does not affect a drug's inclusion (some can kill humans), nor does effectiveness or potency (if a drug is psychoactive, and it has been used in a historical context, then the required dose has also been found).

High <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a> consumption has been linked to an increase in the likelihood of experiencing auditory hallucinations. A study conducted by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Trobe_University" title="La Trobe University">La Trobe University</a> School of Psychological Sciences revealed that as few as five cups of coffee a day could trigger the phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-9"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></p>

<tr>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Common name</th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending"><i>Fauna</i></th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive" title="Psychoactive">Psychoactive</a> constituent(s)</th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Regions/Cultures of use</th>

</tr>

</thead><tbody>

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<td>Colorado River toad</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_River_toad" title="Colorado River toad">Bufo alvarius</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-MeO-DMT" title="5-MeO-DMT">5-MeO-DMT</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">bufotenin</a></td>

<td>Controversial interpretation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican" title="Mesoamerican">Mesoamerican</a> art.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Bullet ant</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraponera_clavata" title="Paraponera clavata">Paraponera clavata</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poneratoxin" title="Poneratoxin">Poneratoxin</a></td>

<td>Used by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satere-Mawe" title="Satere-Mawe">Satere-Mawe</a> people in their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet_ant#Initiation_rites" title="Bullet ant">initiation rites</a> 20 times.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogenic_fish" title="Hallucinogenic fish">Hallucinogenic fish</a></td>

<td>Primary <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siganus" title="Siganus">Siganus</a> </i>spp.</td>

<td>Unknown</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th>Common name</th>

<th><i>Flora</i></th>

<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive" title="Psychoactive">Psychoactive</a> constituent(s)</th>

<th>Regions/Cultures of use</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>African dream root</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silene_capensis" title="Silene capensis">Silene capensis</a></i></td>

<td>Possibly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triterpenoid_saponins" title="Triterpenoid saponins">triterpenoid saponins</a></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_people" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a> people of South Africa.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Ayahuasca</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banisteriopsis_caapi" title="Banisteriopsis caapi">Banisteriopsis caapi</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmala_alkaloid" title="Harmala alkaloid">Harmala alkaloids</a></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>; people of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Rainforest" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%A3o_do_Vegetal" title="União do Vegetal">UDV</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Use within<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca</a>.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymphaea_caerulea" title="Nymphaea caerulea">Nymphaea caerulea</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuciferine" title="Nuciferine">Nuciferine</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aporphine" title="Aporphine">aporphine</a></td>

<td>Possibly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Angel's trumpet</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brugmansia" title="Brugmansia">Brugmansia</a></i> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_pluralis" title="Species pluralis">spp.</a></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropane_alkaloid" title="Tropane alkaloid">Tropane alkaloids</a></td>

<td>South America, sometimes used as part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca</a>.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Bolivian torch cactus</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinopsis_lageniformis" title="Echinopsis lageniformis">Echinopsis lageniformis</a></i> syn.<i>Trichocereus bridgesii</i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">Mescaline</a></td>

<td>South America</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Cannabis</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">Cannabis</a></i> spp.</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">THC</a> and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabinoid" title="Cannabinoid">cannabinoids</a></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari_movement" title="Rastafari movement">Rastafari movements</a> and other groups (see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenic_use_of_cannabis" title="Entheogenic use of cannabis">entheogenic use of cannabis</a>)</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Chaliponga</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplopterys_cabrerana" title="Diplopterys cabrerana">Diplopterys cabrerana</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyltryptamine" title="Dimethyltryptamine">DMT</a>, 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin</td>

<td>Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru as part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca</a>.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Harmal (espand)</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmal" title="Harmal">Peganum harmala</a></i></td>

<td>Harmala alkaloids</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Hawaiian baby woodrose</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyreia_nervosa" title="Argyreia nervosa">Argyreia nervosa</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergoline" title="Ergoline">Ergoline</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a></td>

<td>Psychoactive, but may not have been used as an entheogen. Native to India. Traditional usage possible but mainly undocumented.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Henbane</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoscyamus_niger" title="Hyoscyamus niger">Hyoscyamus niger</a></i></td>

<td>Tropane alkaloids</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witches" title="Witches">witches</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Peruvian torch cactus</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinopsis_peruviana" title="Echinopsis peruviana">Echinopsis peruviana</a></i> syn.<i>Trichocereus peruvianus</i></td>

<td>Mescaline</td>

<td>Pre-Incan <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a> rituals in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Iboga</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernanthe_iboga" title="Tabernanthe iboga">Tabernanthe iboga</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bwiti" title="Bwiti">Bwiti</a> religion of West Central <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. Used by Western nations to treat opioid addiction.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Morning glory</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipomoea_tricolor" title="Ipomoea tricolor">Ipomoea tricolor</a></i></td>

<td>Ergoline alkaloids</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Morning glory</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipomoea_violacea" title="Ipomoea violacea">Ipomoea violacea</a></i></td>

<td>Ergoline alkaloids</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazatec_people" title="Mazatec people">Mazatec</a><sup id="cite_ref-THE_LEAVES_OF_THE_SHEPHERDESS_10-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-THE_LEAVES_OF_THE_SHEPHERDESS-10">[10]</a></sup></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Jimson weed</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_stramonium" title="Datura stramonium">Datura stramonium</a></i></td>

<td>Tropane alkaloids</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o_people" title="Luiseño people">Luiseño</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadhus" title="Sadhus">Sadhus</a> of India. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1ltos" title="Táltos">Táltos</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_people" title="Hungarian people">Magyar</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>).</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Jurema</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimosa_tenuiflora" title="Mimosa tenuiflora">Mimosa tenuiflora</a></i> syn. <i>M. hostilis</i></td>

<td>DMT and harmala alkaloids-ott claims to have taken bark alone and is active</td>

<td>Northeastern Brazil</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Peyote</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lophophora_williamsii" title="Lophophora williamsii">Lophophora williamsii</a></i></td>

<td>Mescaline</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshara_Tradition" title="Oshara Tradition">Oshara Tradition</a></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Chacruna</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotria_viridis" title="Psychotria viridis">Psychotria viridis</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%A3o_do_Vegetal" title="União do Vegetal">UDV</a> of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Brazilian church. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo_Daime" title="Santo Daime">Santo Daime</a> have used it as part of ayahuasca.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Ska María Pastora</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_divinorum" title="Salvia divinorum">Salvia divinorum</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvinorin_A" title="Salvinorin A">Salvinorin A</a></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazatec_people" title="Mazatec people">Mazatec</a></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>San Pedro cactus</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi" title="Echinopsis pachanoi">Echinopsis pachanoi</a></i> syn. <i>Trichocereus pachanoi</i></td>

<td>Mescaline</td>

<td>South America</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Christmas vine</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_corymbosa" title="Turbina corymbosa">Turbina corymbosa</a></i> syn. <i>Rivea corymbosa</i></td>

<td>Ergoline alkaloids</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazatec_people" title="Mazatec people">Mazatec</a><sup id="cite_ref-THE_LEAVES_OF_THE_SHEPHERDESS_10-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-THE_LEAVES_OF_THE_SHEPHERDESS-10">[10]</a></sup></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Virola</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virola" title="Virola">Virola</a></i> spp.</td>

<td>DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin</td>

<td>South America</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Vilca</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenanthera_colubrina" title="Anadenanthera colubrina">Anadenanthera colubrina</a></i></td>

<td>DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin</td>

<td>South America</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenanthera_peregrina" title="Anadenanthera peregrina">Anadenanthera peregrina</a></i></td>

<td>DMT, 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin</td>

<td>South America</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th>Common name</th>

<th>Fungi</th>

<th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive" title="Psychoactive">Psychoactive</a> constituent(s)</th>

<th>Regions/Cultures of use</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Fly agaric</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-11"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">muscimol</a></td>

<td>Siberian shamans. Scandinavia. Possibly the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma" title="Soma">Soma</a> drink of India.</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Magic mushrooms</td>

<td>primarily <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybe" title="Psilocybe">Psilocybe</a></i> spp.</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">Psilocybin</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocin" title="Psilocin">psilocin</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baeocystin" title="Baeocystin">baeocystin</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbaeocystin" title="Norbaeocystin">norbaeocystin</a>(some species)</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazatec_people" title="Mazatec people">Mazatec</a></td>

</tr>

</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>

<h3>Chemicals[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chemicals">edit</a>]</h3>

<p>Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic entheogens like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-AcO-DMT" title="4-AcO-DMT">4-AcO-DMT</a> are theorized to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodrug" title="Prodrug">prodrugs</a> that metabolize into the natural psychoactive, similar in nature to how the synthetic compound <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a> is deacetylated by esterase to the active morphine. While synthesized <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyltryptamine" title="Dimethyltryptamine">DMT</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">mescaline</a> is reported to have identical entheogenic qualities as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">extracted</a> or plant based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how pure <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THC" title="THC">THC</a> is very different than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabidiol" title="Cannabidiol">cannabidiol</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabinol" title="Cannabinol">cannabinol</a>.</p>

<tr>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Common name</th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Synthesis process</th>

</tr>

</thead><tbody>

<tr>

<td>Semi-synthetic</td>

<td>Lysergic acid diethylamide</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Synthetic</td>

<td>2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine</td>

<td>2C-B is used by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangoma" title="Sangoma">Sangoma</a> over their traditional plants.<sup id="cite_ref-2cb-Sangoma-evolver_6-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-2cb-Sangoma-evolver-6">[6]</a></sup> Although acting strongly as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathogen-entactogen" title="Empathogen-entactogen">empathogen-entactogen</a>, 2C-B is notably psychedelic in a unique way. Although some users feel the 2C-x series are better suited for recreational purposes, 2C-B is consistently excluded as an exception and is an exceptional example for its class.<sup id="cite_ref-12"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Synthetic</td>

<td>Dipropyltryptamine</td>

<td>DPT is used as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious" title="Religious">religious</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacrament</a> by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_the_True_Inner_Light" title="Temple of the True Inner Light">Temple of the True Inner Light</a> who believes that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Synthetic</td>

<td>3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine</td>

<td>Small doses of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a> are used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-14"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">Psilocybin</a></td>

<td>Synthetic</td>

<td>4-Phosphoryloxy-N, N-Dimethyltryptamine</td>

<td>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazatec_people" title="Mazatec people">Mazatec</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curandera" title="Curandera">curandera</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Sabina" title="María Sabina">María Sabina</a> was celebrating a mushroom velada with pills of synthetic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">psilocybin</a> named Indocybin synthesized by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Hofmann" title="Albert Hofmann">Albert Hofmann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohimbine" title="Yohimbine">Yohimbine</a></td>

<td>Synthetic or extracted</td>

<td>

<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohimbine" title="Yohimbine">Yohimbine</a> is an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloid</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">naturally</a> found in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausinystalia_yohimbe" title="Pausinystalia yohimbe">Pausinystalia yohimbe</a></i> (Yohimbe), <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rauwolfia_serpentina" title="Rauwolfia serpentina">Rauwolfia serpentina</a></i> (Indian Snakeroot), and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchornea_floribunda" title="Alchornea floribunda">Alchornea floribunda</a></i> (Niando), along with several other active alkaloids. There are no references to these species in traditional use to induce past memories, most likely because their alkaloid content is too low; However, laboratory extracted yohimbine, now commonly sold as sport supplement, may be used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy" title="Psychedelic therapy">psychedelic therapy</a> to facilitate recall of traumatic memories in the treatment of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post traumatic stress disorder">post traumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD).<sup id="cite_ref-16"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup></p>

</td>

</tr>

</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>

<h2>Controversial entheogens[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Controversial entheogens">edit</a>]</h2>

<p>L. E. Hollister's criteria for establishing that a drug is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">hallucinogenic</a> is:<sup id="cite_ref-17"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></p>

<ul>

<li>in proportion to other effects, changes in thought, perception, and mood should predominate;</li>

<li>intellectual or memory impairment should be minimal;</li>

<li>stupor, narcosis, or excessive stimulation should not be an integral effect;</li>

<li>autonomic nervous system side effects should be minimal; and</li>

<li>addictive craving should be absent.</li>

</ul>

<p>Most NMDA-antagonist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_drug" title="Dissociative drug">dissociative drugs</a> including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">ketamine</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">PCP</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">DXM</a> are drugs known to easily cause clinical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_dependence" title="Psychological dependence">psychological dependence</a>, but also strengthen <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissism</a>, and induces chemical dependence, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMDA_Receptor_Antagonist_Neurotoxicity" title="NMDA Receptor Antagonist Neurotoxicity">NMDA receptor antagonist neurotoxicity</a> (NAN), when used chronically.

Common <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug" title="Recreational drug">recreational drugs</a> that cause <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_dependence" title="Chemical dependence">chemical dependence</a> have a history of entheogenic use. Perhaps because they could not access traditional entheogens as shamans were very secret with their sacraments who regarded non-visioning sacraments as hedonistic. The drugs mentioned here have occasionally been used by some shamans but they are psychoactive drugs that are not classified as hallucinogens (psychedelic, dissociative or deliriant). These drugs are not researched chemicals for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy" title="Psychedelic therapy">psychedelic therapy</a> as they have low <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_index" title="Therapeutic index">therapeutic index</a>.</p>

<tr>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Common name</th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Source</th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive" title="Psychoactive">Psychoactive</a>constituent(s)</th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Regions/Cultures of use</th>

<th tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Problematic use</th>

</tr>

</thead><tbody>

<tr>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverages</a>(e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>)</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Ethanol fermentation</a></td>

<td>Primarily <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_alcohol" title="Ethyl alcohol">ethyl alcohol</a></td>

<td>Used in rituals and worshipped by the Egyptians and the Greeks. Used (in the form of Communion wine) by Catholics and other Christian sects.</td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">Physical dependence</a></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythroxylum_coca" title="Erythroxylum coca">Erythroxylum coca</a> </i>&<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythroxylum_novogranatense" title="Erythroxylum novogranatense">Erythroxylum novogranatense</a>spp.</td>

<td>Primarily <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a></td>

<td>Coca has been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Inca_cultures" title="Pre-Inca cultures">pre-Inca period</a> through the present.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta use to chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer.<sup id="cite_ref-banrep.gov.co_18-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-banrep.gov.co-18">[18]</a></sup></td>

<td>The alkaloid content of coca leaves is low, between 0.25% and 0.77%.<sup id="cite_ref-Plowman1983_19-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Plowman1983-19">[19]</a></sup>

<p>This means that chewing the leaves or drinking <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca_tea" title="Coca tea">coca tea</a>does not produce the intense <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocaine_intoxication" title="Cocaine intoxication">high</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphoria" title="Euphoria">euphoria</a>,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalomania" title="Megalomania">megalomania</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>) people experience with cocaine. However, even if it would produce such effect, the next problem would be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocaine_dependence" title="Cocaine dependence">cocaine dependence</a>.</p>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_methysticum" title="Piper methysticum">Piper methysticum</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavalactone" title="Kavalactone">Kavalactones</a></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kava_culture" title="Kava culture">Kava cultures</a> are the religious and cultural traditions of western <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> which consume <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">kava</a>.</td>

<td>Anxiolytic</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catha_edulis" title="Catha edulis">Catha edulis</a></i></td>

<td>For centuries, religious leaders have consumed the leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer.<sup id="cite_ref-20"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></td>

<td>Khat can produce mild-to-moderate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">psychological dependence</a> (less than tobacco or alcohol).<sup id="cite_ref-King_21-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-King-21">[21]</a></sup></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Mapacho (South America) and thuoc lao (thuốc lào) (Vietnam)</td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_rustica" title="Nicotiana rustica">Nicotiana rustica</a></i></td>

<td>Comparatively high levels of MAOI beta-carbolines</td>

<td>A common admixture of Ayahuasca in some parts of the Amazon.</td>

<td>Uncured <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> contains nicotine which is addictive</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppy" title="Opium poppy">Opium poppy</a></td>

<td><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papaver_somniferum" title="Papaver somniferum">Papaver somniferum</a></i></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a></td>

<td>The opium poppy was a magical ritual plant among the Germanic tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-22"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup></td>

<td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">Physical dependence</a></td>

</tr>

</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>

<h3>Religious use[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Religious use">edit</a>]</h3>

<p>Drugs, including some that cause <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">physical dependence</a>, have been used with entheogenic intention, mostly in ancient times.</p>

<h4>Alcohol[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Alcohol">edit</a>]</h4>

<div>

<div>

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysos" title="Dionysos">Dionysos</a>, or Bacchus, was known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God(male_deity)" title="God (male deity)">god</a> of wine and ritual madness in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>("<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus(Michelangelo)" title="Bacchus (Michelangelo)">Bacchus</a>" by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> 1497).</div>

</div>

<div role="note">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_and_alcohol" title="Religion and alcohol">Religion and alcohol</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_alcohol" title="Christianity and alcohol">Christianity and alcohol</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_and_alcohol" title="Islam and alcohol">Islam and alcohol</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_in_the_Bible" title="Alcohol in the Bible">Alcohol in the Bible</a></div>

<p>Alcohol has sometimes been invested with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> significance.

The present day <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol" title="Alcohol">alcohol</a> appears in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Qur%27an" title="The Qur'an">The Qur'an</a> (in verse 37:47) as الغول al-ġawl, properly meaning "spirit" or "demon", in the sense of "the thing that gives the wine its headiness."<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> The term <i>ethanol</i> was invented 1838, modeled on German äthyl (Liebig), from Greek aither (see ether), and hyle "stuff". <i>Ether</i> in late 14c. meant "upper regions of space," from Old French ether and directly from Latin aether, "the upper pure, bright air," from Greek aither "upper air; bright, purer air; the sky," from aithein "to burn, shine," from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">PIE</a> root *aidh- "to burn" (see edifice).<sup id="cite_ref-etymonline1_23-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-etymonline1-23">[23]</a></sup></p>

<dl>

<dt>Celtic polytheism</dt>

</dl>

<p>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" title="Celtic polytheism">ancient Celtic religion</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucellus" title="Sucellus">Sucellus</a> or Sucellos was the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God">god</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic drinks</a> of the Gauls.</p>

<dl>

<dt>Ancient Mesopotamian religion</dt>

</dl>

<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninkasi" title="Ninkasi">Ninkasi</a> is the ancient <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_god" title="Patron god">tutelary goddess</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup></p>

<dl>

<dt>Dionysian Mysteries</dt>

</dl>

<p>In the ancient <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece" title="Religion in ancient Greece">Greco-Roman religion</a>, Dionysos (or Bacchus) was the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_(male_deity)" title="God (male deity)">god</a> of the grape harvest, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">winemaking</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, of ritual madness and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">ecstasy</a>, of merry making and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_and_circuses" title="Bread and circuses">theatre</a>. The original rite of Dionysus is associated with a wine cult and he may have been worshipped as early as c. 1500–1100 BC by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenean_Greeks" title="Mycenean Greeks">Mycenean Greeks</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysian_Mysteries" title="Dionysian Mysteries">Dionysian Mysteries</a> were a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a> of<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> which used <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intoxicant" title="Intoxicant">intoxicants</a> and other trance-inducing techniques (like dance and music) to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. In his Laws, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> said that alcoholic drinking parties should be the basis of any educational system, because the alcohol allows relaxation of otherwise fixed views. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Symposium" title="The Symposium">The Symposium</a></i> (literally, 'drinking together') was a dramatised account of a drinking party where the participants debated the nature of love.

In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, a cup of wine is offered to Demeter which she refuses, instead insisting upon a potion of barley, water, and glechon, known as the ceremonial drink Kykeon, an essential part of the Mysteries. The potion has been hypothesized to be an ergot derivative from barley, similar to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></p>

<dl>

<dt>Osiris</dt>

</dl>

<p>Egyptian pictographs clearly show wine as a finished product around 4000 BC. Osiris, the god who invented beer and brewing, was worshiped throughout the country. The ancient Egyptians made at least 24 types of wine and 17 types of beer. These beverages were used for pleasure, nutrition, rituals, medicine, and payments. They were also stored in the tombs of the deceased for use in the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-26"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osirian Mysteries</a> paralleled the Dionysian, according to contemporary Greek and Egyptian observers. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Spirit possession</a> involved liberation from civilization's rules and constraints. It celebrated that which was outside civilized society and a return to the source of being, which would later assume mystical overtones. It also involved escape from the socialized personality and ego into an ecstatic, deified state or the primal herd (sometimes both).</p>

<dl>

<dt>Other</dt>

</dl>

<p>Some scholars<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a></i>]</sup> have postulated that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> religions actively promoted alcohol and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">drunkenness</a> as a means of fostering <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a>. Alcohol was believed to increase sexual desire and make it easier to approach another person for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_and_sex" title="Alcohol and sex">sex</a>. For example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_paganism" title="Norse paganism">Norse paganism</a> considered alcohol to be the sap of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">Drunkenness</a> was an important <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility_rite" title="Fertility rite">fertility rite</a> in this religion.

Many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">denominations</a> use wine in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">Communion</a> and permit alcohol consumption in moderation. Other denominations use unfermented grape juice in Communion; they either voluntarily abstain from alcohol or prohibit it outright.

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> uses wine on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a> and some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">holidays</a> for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiddush" title="Kiddush">Kiddush</a> as well as more extensively in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a> ceremony and other religious ceremonies. The secular consumption of alcohol is allowed. Some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" title="Jew">Jewish</a> texts, e.g., the<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>, encourage moderate drinking on holidays (such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a>) in order to make the occasion more joyous.</p>

<h4>Kava culture[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kava culture">edit</a>]</h4>

<div role="note">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kava_culture" title="Kava culture">Kava culture</a></div>

<p>Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> which consume <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">kava</a>. There are similarities in the use of kava between the different cultures, but each one also has its own traditions.</p>

<h2>Usage[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Usage">edit</a>]</h2>

<h3>Use and abuse[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Use and abuse">edit</a>]</h3>

<p>Entheogens have been used by individuals to pursue spiritual goals such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_death" title="Ego death">Ego death</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egolessness" title="Egolessness">egolessness</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">faith healing</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy" title="Psychedelic therapy">psychedelic therapy</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_formation" title="Spiritual formation">spiritual formation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>

There are also instances where people have been given entheogens without their knowledge or consent (e.g., tourists in Ayahuasca),<sup id="cite_ref-mensjournal_28-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-mensjournal-28">[28]</a></sup> as well as attempts to use such drugs in other contexts, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse" title="Curse">cursing</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychochemical_weaponry" title="Psychochemical weaponry">psychochemical weaponry</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_torture" title="Psychological torture">psychological torture</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">brainwashing</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_control" title="Mind control">mind control</a>; CIA experiments with LSD were used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MKUltra" title="Project MKUltra">Project MKUltra</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#Controversial_entheogens">controversial entheogens</a> like alcohol are often mentioned in context of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_and_circuses" title="Bread and circuses">bread and circuses</a>.</p>

<h3>Cultural use[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cultural use">edit</a>]</h3>

<p>Entheogens have been used in various ways, e.g., as part of established religious rituals, as aids for personal spiritual development ("plant teachers"),<sup id="cite_ref-29"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> as recreational drugs, and for medical and therapeutic use. The use of entheogens in human cultures is nearly ubiquitous throughout recorded history.

Naturally occurring entheogens such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">psilocybin</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyltryptamine" title="Dimethyltryptamine">DMT</a> (in the preparation <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca</a>), were, for the most part, discovered and used by older cultures, as part of their spiritual and religious life, as plants and agents that were respected, or in some cases revered for generations and may be a tradition that predates all modern religions as a sort of proto-religious rite.

One of the most widely used entheogens is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenic_use_of_cannabis" title="Entheogenic use of cannabis">entheogenic use of cannabis</a> has been used in regions such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and, in some cases, for thousands of years. It has also appeared as a part of religions and cultures such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari_movement" title="Rastafari movement">Rastafari movement</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadhus" title="Sadhus">Sadhus</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and others.</p>

<h4>Africa[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</h4>

<p>The best-known entheogen-using culture of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> is the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bwiti" title="Bwiti">Bwitists</a>, who used a preparation of the root bark of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernanthe_iboga" title="Tabernanthe iboga">Tabernanthe iboga</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> Although the ancient Egyptians may have been using the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymphaea_caerulea" title="Nymphaea caerulea">sacred blue lily</a> plant in some of their religious rituals or just symbolically, it has been suggested that Egyptian religion once revolved around the ritualistic ingestion of the far more psychoactive <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybe_cubensis" title="Psilocybe cubensis">Psilocybe cubensis</a></i> mushroom, and that the Egyptian White Crown, Triple Crown, and Atef Crown were evidently designed to represent pin-stages of this mushroom.<sup id="cite_ref-32"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> There is also evidence for the use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">psilocybin mushrooms</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> Numerous other plants used in shamanic ritual in Africa, such as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silene_capensis" title="Silene capensis">Silene capensis</a></i> sacred to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_people" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a>, are yet to be investigated by western science. A recent revitalization has occurred in the study of southern African psychoactives and entheogens (Mitchell and Hudson 2004; Sobiecki 2002, 2008, 2012).<sup id="cite_ref-34"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>

<h4>Americas[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a>]</h4>

<div role="note">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_use_of_entheogens" title="Aztec use of entheogens">Aztec use of entheogens</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzales_v._O_Centro_Espirita_Beneficente_Uniao_do_Vegetal" title="Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal">Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal</a></div>

<p>Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of most American cultures for millennia. The first American entheogen to be subject to scientific analysis was the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a> cactus (<i>Lophophora williamsii</i>). For his part, one of the founders of modern ethno-botany, the late-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Evans_Schultes" title="Richard Evans Schultes">Richard Evans Schultes</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a>, who live in what became Oklahoma. While it was used traditionally by many cultures of what is now <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, in the 19th century its use spread throughout <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, replacing the deadly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic" title="Toxic">toxic</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calia_secundiflora" title="Calia secundiflora">mescal bean</a> (<i>Calia secundiflora</i>) who are questioned to be an entheogen at all. Other well-known entheogens used by Mexican cultures include the alcoholic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> sacrament, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">pulque</a>, ritual <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> (known as 'picietl' to the Aztecs, and 'sikar' to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_people" title="Maya people">Maya</a> (from where the word 'cigar' derives), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">psilocybin mushrooms</a>, morning glories (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipomoea_tricolor" title="Ipomoea tricolor">Ipomoea tricolor</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_corymbosa" title="Turbina corymbosa">Turbina corymbosa</a></i>), and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_divinorum" title="Salvia divinorum">Salvia divinorum</a></i>.

Indigenous peoples of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> employ a wide variety of entheogens. Better-known examples include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca</a> (most commonly <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banisteriopsis_caapi" title="Banisteriopsis caapi">Banisteriopsis caapi</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotria_viridis" title="Psychotria viridis">Psychotria viridis</a></i>) among indigenous peoples (such as the<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urarina" title="Urarina">Urarina</a>) of Peruvian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazonia" title="Amazonia">Amazonia</a>. Other entheogens include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi" title="Echinopsis pachanoi">San Pedro cactus</a> (<i>Echinopsis pachanoi</i>, syn. <i>Trichocereus pachanoi</i>), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinopsis_peruviana" title="Echinopsis peruviana">Peruvian torch cactus</a> (<i>Echinopsis peruviana</i>, syn. <i>Trichocereus peruvianus</i>), and various DMT-snuffs, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virola" title="Virola">epená</a> (<i>Virola</i> spp.), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenanthera_colubrina" title="Anadenanthera colubrina">vilca</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadenanthera_peregrina" title="Anadenanthera peregrina">yopo</a> (<i>Anadenanthera colubrina</i> and <i>A. peregrina</i>, respectively). The familiar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> plant, when used uncured in large doses in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanic" title="Shamanic">shamanic</a> contexts, also serves as an entheogen in South America. Also, a tobacco that contains higher nicotine content, and therefore smaller doses required, called <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_rustica" title="Nicotiana rustica">Nicotiana rustica</a></i> was commonly used.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>

Entheogens also play an important role in contemporary religious movements such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari_movement" title="Rastafari movement">Rastafari movement</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Universe" title="Church of the Universe">Church of the Universe</a>.

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_wrightii" title="Datura wrightii">Datura wrightii</a> is sacred to some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> and has been used in ceremonies and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rites of passage</a> by Chumash, Tongva, and others. Among the Chumash, when a boy was 8 years old, his mother would give him a preparation of <i>momoy</i> to drink. This supposed spiritual challenge should help the boy develop the spiritual wellbeing that is required to become a man. Not all of the boys undergoing this ritual survived.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia_35-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Garcia-35">[35]</a></sup> <i>Momoy</i> was also used to enhance spiritual wellbeing among adults . For instance, during a frightening situation, such as when seeing a coyote walk like a man, a leaf of <i>momoy</i> was sucked to help keep the soul in the body.</p>

<p>The indigenous peoples of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> (from whom the term <i>shaman</i> was borrowed) have used <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i> as an entheogen.

In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_stramonium" title="Datura stramonium">Datura stramonium</a></i> and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies, although the religious use of datura is not very common, as the primary alkaloids are strong <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliriants" title="Deliriants">deliriants</a>, which causes serious intoxication with unpredictable effects.

Also, the ancient drink <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma" title="Soma">Soma</a>, mentioned often in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, appears to be consistent with the effects of an entheogen. In his 1967 book, Wasson argues that Soma was <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i>. The active ingredient of Soma is presumed by some to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephedrine" title="Ephedrine">ephedrine</a>, an alkaloid with stimulant and (somewhat debatable)<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a></i>]</sup> entheogenic properties derived from the soma plant, identified as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephedra" title="Ephedra">Ephedra</a> </i>pachyclada. However, there are also <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_identity_of_soma%E2%80%93haoma" title="Botanical identity of soma–haoma">arguments</a> to suggest that Soma could have also been <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmal" title="Harmal">Syrian rue</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atropa_belladonna" title="Atropa belladonna">Atropa belladonna</a></i>, or some combination of any of the above plants.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

<h4>Europe[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</h4>

<p>Fermented honey, known in Northern Europe as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">mead</a>, was an early entheogen in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_civilization" title="Aegean civilization">Aegean civilization</a>, predating the introduction of wine, which was the more familiar entheogen of the reborn <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysus</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maenad" title="Maenad">maenads</a>. Its religious uses in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> world are bound up with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_(mythology)" title="Bee (mythology)">mythology of the bee</a>.

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a> were known to use cannabis in their religious and important life ceremonies, proven by discoveries of large clay pots with burnt cannabis seeds in ancient tombs and religious shrines. Also, local oral folklore and myths tell of ancient priests that dreamed with gods and walked in the smoke. Their names, as transmitted by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, were "<i>kap-no-batai</i>" which in Dacian was supposed to mean "the ones that walk in the clouds".

The growth of Roman Christianity also saw the end of the two-thousand-year-old tradition of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleusinian_Mysteries" title="Eleusinian Mysteries">Eleusinian Mysteries</a>, the initiation ceremony for the cult of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter" title="Demeter">Demeter</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persephone" title="Persephone">Persephone</a> involving the use of a drug known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kykeon" title="Kykeon">kykeon</a>. The term 'ambrosia' is used in Greek mythology in a way that is remarkably similar to the <i>Soma</i> of the Hindus as well.

A theory that natural occurring gases like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a> used by inhalation may have played a role in divinatory ceremonies at Delphi in Classical Greece received popular press attention in the early 2000s, yet has not been conclusively proven.<sup id="cite_ref-36"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>

Mushroom consumption is part of the culture of Europeans in general, with particular importance to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_picking_in_Slavic_culture" title="Mushroom picking in Slavic culture">Slavic and Baltic peoples</a>. Some academics consider that using <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">psilocybin</a>- and or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">muscimol</a>-containing mushrooms was an integral part of the ancient culture of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>

<h4>Middle East[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Middle East">edit</a>]</h4>

<p>It has been suggested that the ritual use of small amounts of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmal" title="Harmal">Syrian rue</a> is an artifact of its ancient use in higher doses as an entheogen (possibly in conjunction with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyltryptamine" title="Dimethyltryptamine">DMT</a> containing acacia).<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup>

Philologist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marco_Allegro" title="John Marco Allegro">John Marco Allegro</a> has argued in his book <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sacred_Mushroom_and_the_Cross" title="The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross">The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross</a> that early Jewish and Christian cultic practice was based on the use of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i>, which was later forgotten by its adherents. Allegro's hypothesis is that Amanita use was sacred knowledge kept only by high figures to hide the true beginnings of the Christian cult, seems supported by his own view that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaincourault_Chapel" title="Plaincourault Chapel">Plaincourault Chapel</a> shows evidence of Christian amanita use in the 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_38-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-ref1-38">[38]</a></sup></p>

<h4>Oceania[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</h4>

<p>In general, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">indigenous Australians</a> are thought not to have used entheogens, although there is a strong barrier of secrecy surrounding Aboriginal shamanism, which has likely limited what has been told to outsiders. A plant that the Australian Aboriginals used to ingest is called <i>Pitcheri</i>, which is said to have a similar effect to that of coca. <i>Pitcheri</i> was made from the bark of the shrub <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duboisia_myoporoides" title="Duboisia myoporoides">Duboisia myoporoides</a></i>. This plant is now grown commercially and is processed to manufacture an eye medication. There are no known uses of entheogens by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> aside from a variant species of Kava.<sup id="cite_ref-39"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> Natives of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> are known to use several species of entheogenic mushrooms (<i>Psilocybe</i> spp, <i>Boletus manicus</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-ref2_40-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-ref2-40">[40]</a></sup>

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">Kava</a> or <i>kava kava</i> (<i>Piper Methysticum</i>) has been cultivated for at least 3000 years by a number of Pacific island-dwelling peoples. Historically, most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_culture" title="Polynesian culture">Polynesian</a>, many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesian" title="Melanesian">Melanesian</a>, and some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesian</a> cultures have ingested the psychoactive pulverized root, typically taking it mixed with water. Much traditional usage of kava, though somewhat suppressed by Christian missionaries in the 19th and 20th centuries, is thought to facilitate contact with the spirits of the dead, especially relatives and ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-41"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup></p>

<h3>Religious use[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religious use">edit</a>]</h3>

<div role="note">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></div>

<h4>Prohibition[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Prohibition">edit</a>]</h4>

<p>Some religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic beverages. These include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a> (LDS Church), the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist Church</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Christ,Scientist" title="Church of Christ, Scientist">Church of Christ, Scientist</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Pentecostal_Church_International" title="United Pentecostal Church International">United Pentecostal Church International</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a>, most <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> schools of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> denominations of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, some sects of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Precepts(Taoism)" title="Five Precepts (Taoism)">Five Precepts</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Precepts_(Taoism)" title="Ten Precepts (Taoism)">Ten Precepts</a>), and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>.

The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>, the scripture of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism" title="Theravada Buddhism">Theravada Buddhism</a>, depicts refraining from alcohol as essential to moral conduct because intoxication causes a loss of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness_(Buddhism)" title="Mindfulness (Buddhism)">mindfulness</a>. The fifth of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Precepts" title="Five Precepts">Five Precepts</a> states, "<i>Surā-meraya-majja-pamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.</i>" In English: "I undertake to refrain from fermented drink that causes heedlessness." Technically, this prohibition does not include other mind-altering drugs. The canon does not suggest that alcohol is evil but believes that the carelessness produced by intoxication creates bad karma. Therefore, any drug (beyond tea or mild coffee) that affects one's mindfulness be considered by some to be covered by this prohibition.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

<h4>Judaism and Christianity[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Judaism and Christianity">edit</a>]</h4>

<p>Many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christian</a> denominations disapprove of the use of most illicit drugs. The early history of the Church, however, was filled with a variety of drug use, recreational and otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-42"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>

The primary advocate of a religious use of cannabis plant in early Judaism was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sula_Benet" title="Sula Benet">Sula Benet</a>, also called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Benetowa" title="Sara Benetowa">Sara Benetowa</a>, a Polish anthropologist, who claimed in 1967 that the plant <i>kaneh bosm קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם</i> mentioned five times in the Hebrew Bible, and used in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_anointing_oil" title="Holy anointing oil">holy anointing oil</a> of the Book of Exodus, was in fact cannabis.<sup id="cite_ref-43"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church confirmed it as a possible valid interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-44"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> The lexicons of Hebrew and dictionaries of plants of the Bible such as by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Zohary" title="Michael Zohary">Michael Zohary</a> (1985), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Arne_Jensen" title="Hans Arne Jensen">Hans Arne Jensen</a> (2004) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_A._Duke" title="James A. Duke">James A. Duke</a> (2010) and others identify the plant in question as either <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorus_calamus" title="Acorus calamus">Acorus calamus</a></i> or <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbopogon_citratus" title="Cymbopogon citratus">Cymbopogon citratus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-45"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Kaneh-bosm is listed as an incense in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>. It is generally held by academics specializing in the archaeology and paleobotany of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Israel" title="Ancient Israel">Ancient Israel</a>, and those specializing in the lexicography of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> that cannabis is not documented or mentioned in early Judaism. Against this some popular writers have argued that there is evidence for religious use of cannabis in the Hebrew Bible,<sup id="cite_ref-46"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> although this hypothesis and some of the specific case studies (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Allegro" title="John Allegro">John Allegro</a> in relation to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a>, 1970) have been "widely dismissed as erroneous, others continue".<sup id="cite_ref-47"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>

According to <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Living_Torah" title="The Living Torah">The Living Torah</a></i>, cannabis may have been one of the ingredients of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_anointing_oil" title="Holy anointing oil">holy anointing oil</a> mentioned in various sacred <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> texts.<sup id="cite_ref-48"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> The herb of interest is most commonly known as <i>kaneh-bosm</i> (Hebrew: קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם). This is mentioned several times in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> as a bartering material, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_use_of_incense" title="Religious use of incense">incense</a>, and an ingredient in holy anointing oil used by the high priest of the temple. Although Chris Bennett's research in this area focuses on cannabis, he mentions evidence suggesting use of additional visionary plants such as henbane, as well.<sup id="cite_ref-49"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>

The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> translates <i>kaneh-bosm</i> as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_flag" title="Sweet flag">calamus</a>, and this translation has been propagated unchanged to most later translations of the old testament. However, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> anthropologist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sula_Benet" title="Sula Benet">Sula Benet</a> published <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymological</a>arguments that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> word for hemp can be read as <i>kannabos</i> and appears to be a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> to the modern word 'cannabis',<sup id="cite_ref-50"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> with the root <i>kan</i> meaning reed or hemp and <i>bosm</i> meaning fragrant. Both cannabis and calamus are fragrant, reedlike plants containing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotropic" title="Psychotropic">psychotropic</a> compounds.

In his research, Professor <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dan_Merkur&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Dan Merkur (page does not exist)">Dan Merkur</a> points to significant evidence of an awareness within the Jewish mystical tradition recognizing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manna" title="Manna">manna</a> as an entheogen, thereby substantiating with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbinic" title="Rabbinic">rabbinic</a> texts theories advanced by the superficial biblical interpretations of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence_McKenna" title="Terence McKenna">Terence McKenna</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Gordon_Wasson" title="R. Gordon Wasson">R. Gordon Wasson</a> and other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">ethnomycologists</a>.

Although <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philologist" title="Philologist">philologist</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marco_Allegro" title="John Marco Allegro">John Marco Allegro</a> has suggested that the self-revelation and healing abilities attributed to the figure of Jesus may have been associated with the effects of the plant medicines, this evidence is dependent on pre-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> interpretation of Torah and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenach" title="Tenach">Tenach</a>. Allegro was the only non-Catholic appointed to the position of translating the Dead Sea scrolls. His extrapolations are often the object of scorn due to Allegro's non-mainstream theory of Jesus as a mythological personification of the essence of a "psychoactive sacrament". Furthermore, they conflict with the position of the Catholic Church with regard to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a> and the teaching involving valid matter, form, and drug — that of bread and wine (bread does not contain psychoactive drugs, but wine contains <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>). Allegro's book <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sacred_Mushroom_and_the_Cross" title="The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross">The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross</a> relates the development of language to the development of myths, religions, and cultic practices in world cultures. Allegro believed he could prove, through etymology, that the roots of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, as of many other religions, lay in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility_cult" title="Fertility cult">fertility cults</a>, and that cult practices, such as ingesting visionary plants (or "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelics" title="Psychedelics">psychedelics</a>") to perceive the mind of God, persisted into the early <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christian</a> era, and to some unspecified extent into the 13th century with reoccurrences in the 18th century and mid-20th century, as he interprets the Plaincourault chapel's fresco to be an accurate depiction of the ritual ingestion of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i> as the Eucharist.

The historical picture portrayed by the Entheos journal is of fairly widespread use of visionary plants in early Christianity and the surrounding culture, with a gradual reduction of use of entheogens in Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-51"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> R. Gordon Wasson's book <i>Soma</i> prints a letter from art historian Erwin Panofsky asserting that art scholars are aware of many "mushroom trees" in Christian art.<sup id="cite_ref-52"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>

The question of the extent of visionary plant use throughout the history of Christian practice has barely been considered yet by academic or independent scholars. The question of whether visionary plants were used in pre-Theodosius Christianity is distinct from evidence that indicates the extent to which visionary plants were utilized or forgotten in later Christianity, including so-called "heretical" or "quasi-" Christian groups,<sup id="cite_ref-53"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> and the question of other groups such as elites or laity within "orthodox" Catholic practice.<sup id="cite_ref-54"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>

Daniel Merkur at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> contends that a minority of Christian hermits and mystics could possibly have used entheogens, in conjunction with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayer</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

<h4>Buddhism[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Buddhism">edit</a>]</h4>

<div>

<div>

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a> of the Buddhist Deity Chakrasamvara</div>

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<p>According to R.C. Parker, "The use of entheogens in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> tradition has been documented by such scholars as Ronald M Davidson, William George Stablein, Bulcsu Siklos, David B. Gray, Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, Shashibhusan Das Gupta, Francesca Fremantle, Shinichi Tsuda, David Gordon White, Rene de Nebesky-Wojkowitz, James Francis Hartzell, Edward Todd Fenner, Ian Baker, Dr. Pasang Yonten Arya and numerous others."<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_55-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Parker-55">[55]</a></sup> These scholars have established entheogens were used in Vajrayana (in a limited context) as well as in Tantric <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saivite" title="Saivite">Saivite</a>traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_55-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Parker-55">[55]</a></sup> The major entheogens in the Vajrayana <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuttarayoga_Tantra" title="Anuttarayoga Tantra">Anuttarayoga Tantra</a> tradition are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">Cannabis</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura" title="Datura">Datura</a> which were used in various pills, ointments, and elixirs. Several tantras within Vajrayana specifically mention these entheogens and their use, including the Laghusamvara-tantra (aka <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cakrasa%E1%B9%83vara_Tantra" title="Cakrasaṃvara Tantra">Cakrasaṃvara Tantra</a>), Samputa-tantra, Samvarodaya-tantra, Mahakala-tantra, Guhyasamaja-tantra, Vajramahabhairava-tantra, and the Krsnayamari-tantra.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_55-2"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Parker-55">[55]</a></sup> In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cakrasa%E1%B9%83vara_Tantra" title="Cakrasaṃvara Tantra">Cakrasaṃvara Tantra</a>, the use of entheogens is coupled with mediation practices such as the use of a mandala of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heruka" title="Heruka">Heruka</a> meditation deity (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidam" title="Yidam">yidam</a>) and visualization practices which identify the yidam's external body and mandala with one's own body and 'internal mandala'.<sup id="cite_ref-56"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>

In the West, some modern Buddhist teachers have written on the usefulness of psychedelics. The Buddhist magazine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricycle:_The_Buddhist_Review" title="Tricycle: The Buddhist Review">Tricycle</a> devoted their entire fall 1996 edition to this issue.<sup id="cite_ref-57"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Some teachers such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Jack Kornfield</a> have acknowledged the possibility that psychedelics could complement Buddhist practice, bring healing and help people understand their connection with everything which could lead to compassion.<sup id="cite_ref-58"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> Kornfield warns however that addiction can still be a hindrance. Other teachers such as Michelle McDonald-Smith expressed views which saw entheogens as not conductive to Buddhist practice ("I don't see them developing anything").<sup id="cite_ref-59"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></p>

<h2>Archaeological record[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Archaeological record">edit</a>]</h2>

<div role="note">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record</a></div>

<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Gordon_Wasson" title="R. Gordon Wasson">R. Gordon Wasson</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Samorini" title="Giorgio Samorini">Giorgio Samorini</a> have proposed several examples of the cultural use of entheogens that are found in the archaeological record.<sup id="cite_ref-60"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> Evidence for the first use of entheogens may come from Tassili, Algeria, with a cave painting of a mushroom-man, dating to 8000 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk</a> suggest early ceremonial practices by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

<h2>Classical mythology and cults[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Classical mythology and cults">edit</a>]</h2>

<p>Although entheogens are taboo and most of them are officially prohibited in Christian and Islamic societies, their ubiquity and prominence in the spiritual traditions of various other cultures is unquestioned. "The spirit, for example, need not be chemical, as is the case with the ivy and the olive: and yet the god was felt to be within them; nor need its possession be considered something detrimental, like drugged, hallucinatory, or delusionary: but possibly instead an invitation to knowledge or whatever good the god's spirit had to offer."<sup id="cite_ref-Ruck_and_Staples_62-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Ruck_and_Staples-62">[62]</a></sup>

Most of the well-known modern examples, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">psilocybin mushrooms</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipomoea_tricolor" title="Ipomoea tricolor">morning glories</a> are from the native cultures of the Americas. However, it has also been suggested that entheogens played an important role in ancient Indo-European culture, for example by inclusion in the ritual preparations of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma" title="Soma">Soma</a>, the "pressed juice" that is the subject of Book 9 of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig_Veda" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a>. Soma was ritually prepared and drunk by priests and initiates and elicited a paean in the <i>Rig Veda</i> that embodies the nature of an entheogen:</p>

<p>Splendid by Law! declaring Law, truth speaking, truthful in thy works, Enouncing faith, King Soma!... O [Soma] Pavāmana (mind clarifying), place me in that deathless, undecaying world wherein the light of heaven is set, and everlasting lustre shines.... Make me immortal in that realm where happiness and transports, where joy and felicities combine...</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kykeon" title="Kykeon">kykeon</a> that preceded initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries is another entheogen, which was investigated (before the word was coined) by Carl Kerényi, in <i>Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter.</i> Other entheogens in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean include the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papaver_somniferum" title="Papaver somniferum">opium poppy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_stramonium" title="Datura stramonium">datura</a>, and the unidentified "lotus" (likely the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymphaea_caerulea" title="Nymphaea caerulea">sacred blue lily</a>) eaten by the Lotus-Eaters in the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissus_(mythology)" title="Narcissus (mythology)">Narcissus</a></i>.

According to Ruck, Eyan, and Staples, the familiar shamanic entheogen that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-Europeans</a> brought knowledge of was <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i>. It could not be cultivated; thus it had to be found, which suited it to a nomadic lifestyle. When they reached the world of the Caucasus and the Aegean, the Indo-Europeans encountered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, the entheogen of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysus</a>, who brought it with him from his birthplace in the mythical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nysa_(mythology)" title="Nysa (mythology)">Nysa</a>, when he returned to claim his Olympian birthright. The Indo-European proto-Greeks "recognized it as the entheogen of Zeus, and their own traditions of shamanism, the Amanita and the 'pressed juice' of Soma — but better, since no longer unpredictable and wild, the way it was found among the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperborea" title="Hyperborea">Hyperboreans</a>: as befit their own assimilation of agrarian modes of life, the entheogen was now cultivable."<sup id="cite_ref-Ruck_and_Staples_62-1"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Ruck_and_Staples-62">[62]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Graves" title="Robert Graves">Robert Graves</a>, in his foreword to <i>The Greek Myths,</i>hypothesises that the ambrosia of various pre-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic</a> tribes was <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i> (which, based on the morphological similarity of the words amanita, amrita and ambrosia, is entirely plausible) and perhaps <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">psilocybin mushrooms</a> of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panaeolus" title="Panaeolus">Panaeolus</a></i> genus.

Amanita was <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a> food, according to Ruck and Staples, not something to be indulged in or sampled lightly, not something to be profaned. It was the food of the gods, their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia" title="Ambrosia">ambrosia</a>, and it mediated between the two realms. It is said that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalus" title="Tantalus">Tantalus</a>'s crime was inviting commoners to share his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia" title="Ambrosia">ambrosia</a>.

The entheogen is believed to offer godlike powers in many traditional tales, including immortality. The failure of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a> in retrieving the plant of immortality from beneath the waters teaches that the blissful state cannot be taken by force or guile: When Gilgamesh lay on the bank, exhausted from his heroic effort, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism)" title="Serpent (symbolism)">serpent</a> came and ate the plant.

Another attempt at subverting the natural order is told in a (according to some) strangely metamorphosed myth, in which natural roles have been reversed to suit the Hellenic world-view. The Alexandrian Apollodorus relates how<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia(mythology)" title="Gaia (mythology)">Gaia</a> (spelled "Ge" in the following passage), Mother Earth herself, has supported the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan(mythology)" title="Titan (mythology)">Titans</a> in their battle with the Olympian intruders. The Giants have been defeated:</p>

<p>When Ge learned of this, she sought a drug that would prevent their destruction even by mortal hands. But Zeus barred the appearance of Eos (the Dawn), Selene (the Moon), and Helios (the Sun), and chopped up the drug himself before Ge could find it.<sup id="cite_ref-63"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup></p>

</blockquote>

<h3>Assassins[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Assassins">edit</a>]</h3>

<div role="note">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashshashins#Legends_and_folklore" title="Hashshashins">Hashshashins § Legends and folklore</a></div>

<p>The legends of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassins" title="Assassins">Assassins</a> had much to do with the training and instruction of Nizari <i>fida'is</i>, famed for their public missions during which they often gave their lives to eliminate adversaries.

The tales of the <i>fida’is</i>’ training collected from anti-Ismaili historians and orientalists writers were confounded and compiled in Marco Polo’s account, in which he described a "secret garden of paradise".<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> After being drugged, the Ismaili devotees were said be taken to a paradise-like garden filled with attractive young maidens and beautiful plants in which these <i>fida’is</i> would awaken. Here, they were told by an "old" man that they were witnessing their place in Paradise and that should they wish to return to this garden permanently, they must serve the Nizari cause.<sup id="cite_ref-Secret_Order_64-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Secret_Order-64">[64]</a></sup> So went the tale of the "Old Man in the Mountain", assembled by Marco Polo and accepted by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_Hammer-Purgstall" title="Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall">Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall</a> (1774–1856), a prominent orientalist writer responsible for much of the spread of this legend. Until the 1930s, von Hammer’s retelling of the Assassin legends served as the standard account of the Nizaris across Europe.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>

<h2>Research[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</h2>

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<div>

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a>-like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_window" title="Rose window">round window</a> above the altar at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University" title="Boston University">Boston University</a>'s Marsh Chapel, site of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh_Chapel_Experiment" title="Marsh Chapel Experiment">Marsh Chapel Experiment</a></div>

</div>

<p>Notable early testing of the entheogenic experience includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh_Chapel_Experiment" title="Marsh Chapel Experiment">Marsh Chapel Experiment</a>, conducted by physician and theology doctoral candidate, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Pahnke" title="Walter Pahnke">Walter Pahnke</a>, under the supervision of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Leary" title="Timothy Leary">Timothy Leary</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Psilocybin_Project" title="Harvard Psilocybin Project">Harvard Psilocybin Project</a>. In this <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-blind" title="Double-blind">double-blind</a> experiment, volunteer graduate school divinity students from the Boston area almost all claimed to have had profound religious experiences subsequent to the ingestion of pure <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">psilocybin</a>. In 2006, a more rigorously controlled experiment was conducted at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>, and yielded similar results.<sup id="cite_ref-Griffiths_65-0"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-Griffiths-65">[65]</a></sup> To date there is little <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer-reviewed research</a> on this subject, due to ongoing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_(drugs)" title="Prohibition (drugs)">drug prohibition</a> and the difficulty of getting approval from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">institutional review boards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>

Furthermore, scientific studies on entheogens present some significant challenges to investigators, including philosophical questions relating to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup></p>

<h2>Legal status of entheogens[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Legal status of entheogens">edit</a>]</h2>

<h3>Australia[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</h3>

<div role="note">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyltryptamine#Australia" title="Dimethyltryptamine">Dimethyltryptamine § Australia</a></div>

<p>Between 2011 and 2012, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Federal_Government" title="Australian Federal Government">Australian Federal Government</a> was considering changes to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_law_of_Australia" title="Criminal law of Australia">Australian Criminal Code</a> that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as "controlled plants".<sup id="cite_ref-68"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> DMT itself was already controlled under current laws. The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing Mescaline or Ephedrine. The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the official <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Australian_floral_emblems" title="List of Australian floral emblems">Floral Emblem of Australia</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_pycnantha" title="Acacia pycnantha">Acacia pycnantha</a> (Golden Wattle), illegal. The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic value to native and/or religious peoples).<sup id="cite_ref-69"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup></p>

<h3>United States[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</h3>

<p>In 1963 in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherbert_v._Verner" title="Sherbert v. Verner">Sherbert v. Verner</a> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> established the Sherbert Test, which consists of four criteria that are used to determine if an individual's right to religious free exercise has been violated by the government. The test is as follows:

For the individual, the court must determine</p>

<ul>

<li>whether the person has a claim involving a sincere religious belief, and</li>

<li>whether the government action is a substantial burden on the person’s ability to act on that belief.</li>

</ul>

<p>If these two elements are established, then the government must prove</p>

<ul>

<li>that it is acting in furtherance of a "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compelling_state_interest" title="Compelling state interest">compelling state interest</a>," and</li>

<li>that it has pursued that interest in the manner least restrictive, or least burdensome, to religion.</li>

</ul>

<p>This test was eventually all-but-eliminated in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a> 494 U.S. 872 (1990), but was resurrected by Congress in the federal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act" title="Religious Freedom Restoration Act">Religious Freedom Restoration Act</a> (RFRA) of 1993.

In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v.Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a>, 521 U.S. 507 (1997) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzales_v.O_Centro_Esp%C3%ADrita_Beneficente_Uni%C3%A3o_do_Vegetal" title="Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal">Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal</a>, 546 U.S. 418 (2006), the RFRA was held to trespass on state sovereignty, and application of the RFRA was essentially limited to federal law enforcement.

As of 2001, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> had enacted so-called "mini-RFRAs."</p>

<h2>Literature[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</h2>

<p>Many works of literature have described entheogen use; some of those are:</p>

<ul>

<li>The drug <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melange(fictional_drug)" title="Melange (fictional drug)">melange</a> (spice) in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Herbert" title="Frank Herbert">Frank Herbert</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune(franchise)" title="Dune (franchise)"><i>Dune</i> universe</a> acts as both an entheogen (in large enough quantities) and an addictive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geriatric" title="Geriatric">geriatric</a> medicine. Control of the supply of melange was crucial to the Empire, as it was necessary for, among other things, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster_than_light" title="Faster than light">faster-than-light</a> (folding space) navigation.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li>Consumption of the imaginary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a> <i>anochi</i> [enoki] as the entheogen underlying the creation of Christianity is the premise of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick" title="Philip K. Dick">Philip K. Dick</a>'s last novel, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Transmigration_of_Timothy_Archer" title="The Transmigration of Timothy Archer">The Transmigration of Timothy Archer</a></i>, a theme that seems to be inspired by John Allegro's book.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li>Aldous Huxley's final novel, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_(Huxley_novel)" title="Island (Huxley novel)">Island</a></i> (1962), depicted a fictional <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive_mushroom" title="Psychoactive mushroom">psychoactive mushroom</a> — termed "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a> medicine" — used by the people of Pala in rites of passage, such as the transition to adulthood and at the end of life.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Sterling" title="Bruce Sterling">Bruce Sterling</a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Fire_(novel)" title="Holy Fire (novel)">Holy Fire</a></i> novel refers to the religion in the future as a result of entheogens, used freely by the population.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_King" title="Stephen King">Stephen King</a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Tower:The_Gunslinger" title="The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger">The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger</a></i>, Book 1 of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Tower(series)" title="The Dark Tower (series)">The Dark Tower</a></i> series, the main character receives guidance after taking <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">mescaline</a>.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastair_Reynolds" title="Alastair Reynolds">Alastair Reynolds</a> novel <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolution_Gap" title="Absolution Gap">Absolution Gap</a></i> features a moon under the control of a religious government that uses neurological viruses to induce religious faith.<sup>[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li>A critical examination of the ethical and societal implications and relevance of "entheogenic" experiences can be found in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Waterman" title="Daniel Waterman">Daniel Waterman</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey_William_Hardison" title="Casey William Hardison">Casey William Hardison</a>'s book <i>Entheogens, Society & Law: Towards a Politics of Consciousness, Autonomy and Responsibility</i> (Melrose, Oxford 2013). This book includes a controversial analysis of the term entheogen arguing that Wasson et al. were mystifying the effects of the plants and traditions it refers to.</li>

<li>The book <i>Orange Sunshine and the Psychedelic Sunrise</i> covers the continuum of life to death experiences from a personal and existential perspective, with an emphasis on spiritual transcendence: a psychedelic experience.</li>

</ul>

<h2>References[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</h2>

<div>

<ol>

<li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-1">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Rudgley}, Richard. </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.mescaline.com/sanpedro/">"The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances"</a>. www.mescaline.com. Retrieved 21 May 2015.</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-2">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/151962/0">http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/151962/0</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-3">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://mescaline.com/exp/">http://mescaline.com/exp/</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-4">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen">"Entheogen"</a>. dictionary.com. Retrieved </cite>2012-03-13.</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-5">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-89132008000500010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en">"Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology - Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology"</a>. scielo.br. Retrieved </cite>2009-01-14.</li>

<li id="cite_note-2cb-Sangoma-evolver-6">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-2cb-Sangoma-evolver_6-0">Jump up to:<sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-2cb-Sangoma-evolver_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Chen Cho Dorge (2010-05-20). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://evolver.civicactions.net/user/chen_cho_dorge/blog/2cb_chosen_over_traditional_entheogens_south_african_healers">"2CB chosen over traditional entheogens by South African healers"</a>. Evolver.net.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Godlaski2011-7"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Godlaski2011_7-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Godlaski}, Theodore M (2011). "The God within". </cite><i>Substance Use and Misuse</i> <b>46</b> (10): 1217–1222. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3109%2F10826084.2011.561722">10.3109/10826084.2011.561722</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21692597">21692597</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-8">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite}>Carl A. P. Ruck; Jeremy Bigwood; Danny Staples; Jonathan Ott; R. Gordon Wasson (January–June 1979). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://jeremybigwood.net/JBsPUBS/JBScientific/Entheogens/index.htm#Entheogens">"Entheogens"</a>. <i>Journal of Psychedelic Drugs</i> <b>11</b> (1–2): 145–146.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F02791072.1979.10472098">10.1080/02791072.1979.10472098</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/522165">522165</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-9">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/227884.php">"Too much coffee can make you hear things that are not there"</a>. Medical News Today. Retrieved </cite>2013-03-31.</li>

<li id="cite_note-THE_LEAVES_OF_THE_SHEPHERDESS-10">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-THE_LEAVES_OF_THE_SHEPHERDESS_10-0">Jump up to:<sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-THE_LEAVES_OF_THE_SHEPHERDESS_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.sagewisdom.org/shepherdess.html">http://www.sagewisdom.org/shepherdess.html</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-11">Jump up^{</a></b> Heinrich}, C (1995). <i>Strange Fruit: Alchemy and Religion- The Hidden Truth</i>. London : Bloomsbury. Referenced throughout <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780747515487">ISBN 978-0-7475-1548-7</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-12">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Oroc}, James (May 21, 2009). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="https://books.google.com/?id=AiJVP-hPCJUC&pg=PA295&lpg=PA295&dq=2c-b+good+entheogen#v=onepage&q=2c-b%20good%20entheogen&f=false"><i>Tryptamine Palace: 5-MeO-DMT and the Sonoran Desert Toad</i></a>. Park Street Press. p. 295. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1594772991" title="Special:BookSources/1594772991">1594772991</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-13">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://psychede.tripod.com/">"Temple of the true inner light"</a>. psychede.tripod.com. Retrieved2013-03-31</cite>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-14">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://csp.org/practices/entheogens/docs/saunders-ecstasy_rel.html">MDMA and Religion</a>. CSP. Retrieved on 11 June 2011.</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-15">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.sagewisdom.org/ott2.html">"Ethnopharmacognosy and Human Pharmacology of Salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A"</a>. Sagewisdom.org. Retrieved </cite>2013-01-13.</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-16">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite}>van der Kolk, Bessel A. (1995). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sVuMSVEY83UC&pg=PA421">"The Treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder"</a>. In Hobfoll, Stevan E.; De Vries, Marten W. <i>Extreme stress and communities: impact and intervention</i>. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 421–44. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3468-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3468-2">978-0-7923-3468-2</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-17">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};Glennon RA. Classical drugs: an introductory overview. In Lin GC and Glennon RA (eds). <a rel="nofollow" href="http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/monographs/146.pdf">Hallucinogens: an update</a>. National Institute on Drug Abuse: Rockville, MD, 1994.</li>

<li id="cite_note-banrep.gov.co-18"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-banrep.gov.co_18-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite}>Museo del Oro, Banco de la Republica. </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.banrep.gov.co/museo/eng/expo_bogota3c.htm">"Museo del Oro, Colombia"</a> (in Spanish). Banrep.gov.co. Retrieved 2012-11-09.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Plowman1983-19"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Plowman1983_19-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Plowman}, T; Rivier L (1983). "Cocaine and Cinnamoylcocaine content of thirty-one species of Erythroxylum (Erythroxylaceae)". </cite><i>Annals of Botany</i>(London) <b>51</b>: 641–659.</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-20">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ogina.org/issue5/issue5_culture_of_khat_ezekiel.html">http://www.ogina.org/issue5/issue5_culture_of_khat_ezekiel.html</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-King-21"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-King_21-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Nutt}, D.; King, L.A.; Saulsbury, C.; Blakemore, Colin (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". </cite><i>Lancet</i> <b>369</b> (9566): 1047–53. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2807%2960464-4">10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17382831">17382831</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-22">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.entheology.org/edoto/anmviewer.asp?a=259">http://www.entheology.org/edoto/anmviewer.asp?a=259</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-etymonline1-23"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-etymonline1_23-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ether&allowed_in_frame=0">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. Etymonline.com. Retrieved2013-02-05</cite>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-24">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.beerchurch.com/beer-info/beer-history/">http://www.beerchurch.com/beer-info/beer-history/</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-25">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};The Road to Eleusis: Unveiling the Secret of the Mysteries, by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.Gordon_Wasson" title="R. Gordon Wasson">R. Gordon Wasson</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Hofmann" title="Albert Hofmann">Albert Hofmann</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_A.P._Ruck" title="Carl A. P. Ruck">Carl A. P. Ruck</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-26">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://invent.answers.com/history/the-history-of-alcohol">http://invent.answers.com/history/the-history-of-alcohol</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-27">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.jonathontwiz.com/2015/01/24/why-i-do-psychedelics/">"Why I Do Psychedelics"</a>. www.jonathontwiz.com. Retrieved </cite>21 May2015.</li>

<li id="cite_note-mensjournal-28"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-mensjournal_28-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Hearn}, Kelly. </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.mensjournal.com/magazine/the-dark-side-of-ayahuasca-20130215">"The Dark Side of Ayahuasca"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men%27s_Journal" title="Men's Journal">Men's Journal</a>. Retrieved2013-12-03.</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-29">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Tupper}, K.W. (2003). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.kentupper.com/resources/Entheogens+$26+Education--JDEA+2003.pdf">"Entheogens & education: Exploring the potential of psychoactives as educational tools"</a> (PDF). <i>Journal of Drug Education and Awareness</i> <b>1</b> (2): 145–161. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1546-6965">1546-6965</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-30">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Tupper}, K.W. (2002). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.csse.ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE27-4/CJE27-4-tupper.pdf">"Entheogens and existential intelligence: The use of plant teachers as cognitive tools"</a> (PDF). <i>Canadian Journal of Education</i> <b>27</b> (4): 499–516. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1602247">10.2307/1602247</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-31">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://ibogaine.desk.nl/fernandez.html">Bwiti: An Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in Africa</a> by James W. Fernandez, Princeton University Press, 1982</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-32">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>S.R}. Berlant (2005). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091222064142/http://shroomer.cz/upload/Hubicky_v_Egypte.pdf">"The entheomycological origin of Egyptian crowns and the esoteric underpinnings of Egyptian religion"</a> (PDF). <i>Journal of Ethnopharmacology</i> <b>102</b> (2005): 275–88. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jep.2005.07.028">10.1016/j.jep.2005.07.028</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16199133">16199133</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" href="http://shroomer.cz/upload/Hubicky_v_Egypte.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2009-12-22.</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-33">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Samorini}, Giorgio (1995). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.museocivico.rovereto.tn.it/pubblicazioni.jsp?ID_LINK=111250&area=3">"Traditional Use of Psychoactive Mushrooms in Ivory Coast?"</a>. <i>Eleusis</i> <b>1</b>: 22–27. Retrieved 8 May 2014.</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-34">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ethnobotany.co.za/index.php/publications-and-writing/ethnobotanical-research">"Ethnobotanical Research"</a>. ethnobotany.co.za. Retrieved </cite>2013-01-13.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Garcia-35"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Garcia_35-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite}>Cecilia Garcia, James D. Adams (2005). </cite><i>Healing with medicinal plants of the west - cultural and scientific basis for their use</i>. Abedus Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9763091-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-9763091-0-6">0-9763091-0-6</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-36">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ethylene/ethylene_history1.shtml">"History : Oracle at Delphi May Have Been Inhaling Ethylene Gas Fumes"</a>. </cite><i>Ethylene Vault</i>. Erowid.org. Retrieved 2013-03-31.</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-37">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.narkotiki.ru/research_5281.html">"Drugs in ancient Russia - Research"</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-ref1-38"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-ref1_38-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Allegro}, John Marco (1970). </cite><i>The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East</i>. Hodder and Stoughton. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-12875-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-12875-5">0-340-12875-5</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-39">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.entheology.org/edoto/anmviewer.asp?a=67">"Macropiper Excelsum - Maori Kava"</a>. Entheology.org. Retrieved2013-01-13</cite>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-ref2-40"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-ref2_40-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.shaman-australis.com/_{benjamin-thomas/">}"Benjamin Thomas Ethnobotany & Anthropology Research Page"</a>. Shaman-australis.com. Retrieved </cite>2013-01-13.</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-41">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Singh}, edited by Yadhu N. (2004). </cite><i>Kava from ethnology to pharmacology</i>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1420023373" title="Special:BookSources/1420023373">1420023373</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-42">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};The Chemical Muse: Drug Use and the Roots of Western Civilization by D. C.A. Hillman Ph.D.</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-43">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};Rowan Robinson, The Great Book of Hemp, Health & Fitness, 1995, pg. 89</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-44">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_spirit2.shtml">"Marijuana and the Bible= Erowid.org"</a>. 2002-03-01.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-45">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};Lytton J. Musselman <i>Figs, dates, laurel, and myrrh: plants of the Bible and the Quran</i> 2007 pg. 73</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-46">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};Dan Merkur <i>The Mystery of Manna: The Psychedelic Sacrament of the Bible</i> (2001); James D. Dure, <i>Manna Magic Mushroom of Moses : Manna Botanical I.D. of a Biblical Sacrament</i> (self published, 2000)</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-47">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Merlin}, M. D. "COVER ARTICLE: Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World". </cite><i>Economic Botany</i><b>57</b> (3): 295–323. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1663%2F0013-0001%282003%29057%5B0295%3AAEFTTO%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0295:AEFTTO]2.0.CO;2</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-48">Jump up^{</a></b> Kaplan}, Aryeh. (1981). <i>The Living Torah</i> New York. p. 442.</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-49">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/1550567985">Sex, Drugs, Violence and the Bible</a>, by Chris Bennett and Neil McQueen, 2001, Forbidden Fruit Publishing.</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-50">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.njweedman.com/kanehbosm.html">"kanehbosm"</a>. Njweedman.com. Retrieved </cite>2013-01-13.</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-51">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://entheomedia.org/Issue%20one.htm">Conjuring Eden: Art and the Entheogenic Vision of Paradise</a>, by Mark Hoffman, Carl Ruck, and Blaise Staples. Entheos: The Journal of Psychedelic Spirituality, Issue No. 1, Summer, 2001</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-52">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.egodeath.com/WassonEdenTree.htm">Wasson and Allegro on the Tree of Knowledge as Amanita</a>, Michael S. Hoffman, Journal of Higher Criticism, 2007</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-53">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://entheomedia.org/Entheos_Issue_2.htm">Daturas for the Virgin</a>, José Celdrán and Carl Ruck, Entheos: The Journal of Psychedelic Spirituality, Vol. I, Issue 2, Winter, 2002</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-54">Jump up^{</a></b> }<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/1594601445">The Hidden World: Survival of Pagan Shamanic Themes in European Fairytales</a>, by Carl Ruck, Blaise Staples, Jose Alfredo Celdran, Mark Hoffman, Carolina Academic Press, 2007</li>

<li id="cite_note-Parker-55">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Parker_55-0">Jump up to:<sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Parker_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Parker_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> Parker, R.C. The Use of Entheogens in the Vajrayana Tradition: a brief summary of preliminary findings together with a partial bibliography.© 2007 (updated 2008), <a rel="nofollow" href="http://vajrayana.faithweb.com/rich_text_5.html">http://vajrayana.faithweb.com/rich_text_5.html</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-56">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};Tsunehiko SUGIKI, BOOK REVIEW [David B. Gray, The Cakrasamvara Tantra (The Discourse of Śrī Heruka): A Study and Annotated Translation.]</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-57">Jump up^{</a></b> Tricycle}: Buddhism & Psychedelics, Fall 1996</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-58">Jump up^{</a></b> Kornfield}, Jack; “Bringing Home the Dharma: Awakening Right Where You Are“, excerpted at <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.jackkornfield.com/psychedelics-antidepressants-spiritual-practice/">http://www.jackkornfield.com/psychedelics-antidepressants-spiritual-practice/</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-59">Jump up^{</a></b> Stolaroff}; Myron J, Are psychedelics useful in the practice of Buddhism? Journal of Humanistic Psychology Vol. 39 No. 1 Winter 1999 Pp. 60-80</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-60">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};Giorgio Samorini, "The ‘Mushroom-Tree’ of Plaincourault", Eleusis: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds, n. 8, 1997, pp. 29-37</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-61">Jump up^{</a></b>&#160};Giorgio Samorini, "The ‘Mushroom-Trees’ in Christian Art", Eleusis: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds, n. 1, 1998, pp. 87-108</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ruck_and_Staples-62">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Ruck_and_Staples_62-0">Jump up to:<sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Ruck_and_Staples_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <cite>Staples, Danny; Carl A.P. Ruck (1994). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://csp.org/chrestomathy/world_of.html"><i>The world of classical myth : gods and goddesses, heroines and heroes</i></a>. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89089-575-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-89089-575-9">0-89089-575-9</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-63">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.theoi.com/Protogenos/Gaia.html"><i>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca</i></a>. Circa 2 A.D. pp. 34–39.</cite> Check date values in: <code>|date=</code> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li>

<li id="cite_note-Secret_Order-64"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Secret_Order_64-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Hodgson" title="Marshall Hodgson">Hodgson, Marshall G.S.</a> </cite>(2005). <a rel="nofollow" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GU7uAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Secret Order of Assassins: The Struggle of the Early Nizârî Ismâʻîlîs Against the Islamic World</i></a>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1916-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1916-6">978-0-8122-1916-6</a>. Retrieved September 15, 2010.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Griffiths-65"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-Griffiths_65-0">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>R}. R. Griffiths; W. A. Richards; U. McCann; R. Jesse (2006-07-07).<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.springerlink.com/content/v2175688r1w4862x/fulltext.pdf">"Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance"</a> </cite>(PDF).<i>Psychopharmacology</i> <b>187</b> (3): 268–283. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00213-006-0457-5">10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16826400">16826400</a>. Retrieved 2011-02-03.</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-66">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Nutt}, David J.; King, Leslie A.; Nichols, David E. (2013). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v14/n8/full/nrn3530.html">"Effects of Schedule I Drug Laws on Neuroscience Research and Treatment Innovation"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews Neuroscience</i> <b>14</b> (8): 577–85.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3530">10.1038/nrn3530</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23756634">23756634</a>. Retrieved 2015-01-12.</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-67">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>Tupper}, Kenneth W.; Labate, Beatriz C. (2014). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://eurekaselect.com/127467">"Ayahuasca, Psychedelic Studies and Health Sciences: The Politics of Knowledge and Inquiry into an Amazonian Plant Brew"</a>. <i>Current Drug Abuse Reviews</i> <b>7</b> (2): 71–80.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2174%2F1874473708666150107155042">10.2174/1874473708666150107155042</a>. Retrieved 2015-01-12.</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-68">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Consultationsreformsandreviews_ConsultationonimplementationofmodeldrugschedulesforCommonwealthseriousdrugoffences">"Consultation on implementation of model drug schedules for Commonwealth serious drug offences"</a>. </cite><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney-General%27s_Department_(Australia)" title="Attorney-General's Department (Australia)">Australian Government, Attorney-General’s Department</a>. 24 June 2010.</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogen#cite_ref-69">Jump up^{</a></b> <cite>}<a rel="nofollow" href="http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/79564875/aussie-dmt-ban">"AUSSIE DMT BAN"</a>. connection.ebscohost.com. Retrieved </cite>21 May2015.</li>

</ol>

</div>

<h2>Further reading[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</h2>

<div>

<ul>

<li>Harner, Michael, <i>The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing,</i>Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980</li>

<li>Rätsch, Christian; "The Psychoactive Plants, Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications"; Park Street Press; Rochester Vermont; 1998/2005; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780892819782">ISBN 978-0-89281-978-2</a></li>

<li>Roberts, Thomas B. (editor) (2001). <i>Psychoactive Sacramentals: Essays on Entheogens and Religion</i> San Francisco: Council on Spiritual Practices.</li>

<li>Roberts, Thomas B. (2006) "Chemical Input, Religious Output—Entheogens" Chapter 10 in <i>Where God and Science Meet: Vol. 3: The Psychology of Religious Experience</i> Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.</li>

<li>Roberts, Thomas, and Hruby, Paula J. (1995–2003). <i>Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments: An Entheogen Chrestomathy</i><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.csp.org/chrestomathy">http://www.csp.org/chrestomathy</a> [Online archive]</li>

<li><cite>Tupper, Kenneth W. (2014). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.maps.org/news-letters/v24n1/v24n1_p14-19.pdf">"Entheogenic Education: Psychedelics as Tools of Wonder and Awe"</a> (PDF). <i>MAPS Bulletin</i> <b>24</b> (1): 14–19.</li>

<li><cite>Tupper, Kenneth W. (2002). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.csse-scee.ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE27-4/CJE27-4-tupper.pdf">"Entheogens and Existential Intelligence: The Use of Plant Teachers as Cognitive Tools"</a> (PDF). <i>Canadian Journal of Education</i><b>27</b> (4): 499–516. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1602247">10.2307/1602247</a>.</li>

<li><cite>Tupper, Kenneth W. (2003). </cite><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.kentupper.com/resources/Entheogens+$26+Education--JDEA+2003.pdf">"Entheogens & Education: Exploring the Potential of Psychoactives as Educational Tools"</a> (PDF). <i>Journal of Drug Education and Awareness</i> <b>1</b> (2): 145–161.</li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Stafford" title="Peter Stafford">Stafford, Peter</a>. (2003). <i>Psychedelics</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronin_Publishing" title="Ronin Publishing">Ronin Publishing</a>, Oakland, California.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0914171186">ISBN 0-914171-18-6</a>.</li>

<li>Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, <i>The World of Classical Myth</i> 1994. <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.csp.org/chrestomathy/world_of.html">Introductory excerpts</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huston_Smith" title="Huston Smith">Huston Smith</a>, <i>Cleansing the Doors of Perception: The Religious Significance of Entheogenic Plants and Chemicals</i>, 2000, Tarcher/Putnam, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1585420344">ISBN 1-58542-034-4</a></li>

<li>Daniel Pinchbeck,<a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2003/sep/20/booksonhealth.lifeandhealth">"Ten Years of Therapy in One Night"</a>, The Guardian UK (2003), describes Daniel's second journey with Iboga facilitated by Dr. Martin Polanco at the Ibogaine Association clinic in Rosarito, Mexico.</li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Samorini" title="Giorgio Samorini">Giorgio Samorini</a> 1995 "Traditional use of psychoactive mushrooms in Ivory Coast?" in <i>Eleusis</i> 1 22-27 (no current url)</li>

<li>M. Bock 2000 <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.lycaeum.org/eleusis/en/articles/bock.shtml">"Māori kava (<i>Macropiper excelsum</i>)"</a> in <i>Eleusis - Journal of Psychoactive Plants & Compounds</i> n.s. vol 4 (no current url)</li>

<li><i>Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers</i> by<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Evans_Schultes" title="Richard Evans Schultes">Richard Evans Schultes</a>, Albert Hofmann, Christian Ratsch - <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0892819790">ISBN 0-89281-979-0</a></li>

<li>John J. McGraw, <a rel="nofollow" href="http://materialreligions.blogspot.com/2014/09/hallucinogensentheogens.html"><i>Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul</i></a>, 2004, AEGIS PRESS, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0974764507">ISBN 0-9747645-0-7</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0009BD34-398C-1F0A-97AE80A84189EEDF">J.R. Hale, J.Z. de Boer, J.P. Chanton and H.A. Spiller (2003) Questioning the Delphic Oracle, 2003, Scientific American, vol 289, no 2, 67-73.</a></li>

<li><i>The Sacred Plants of our Ancestors</i> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_R%C3%A4tsch" title="Christian Rätsch">Christian Rätsch</a>, published in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyr_(journal)#Volume_2" title="Tyr (journal)">TYR: Myth—Culture—Tradition Vol. 2</a>, 2003–2004 - <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0972029214">ISBN 0-9720292-1-4</a></li>

<li>Yadhu N. Singh, editor, <i>Kava: From Ethnology to Pharmacology</i>, 2004, Taylor & Francis, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415323274">ISBN 0-415-32327-4</a></li>

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<h2>External links[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entheogen&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</h2>

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<div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age movement</a></div>

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<div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">Witchcraft</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" title="Magic (paranormal)">magic</a></div>

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<div id="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: 

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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Entheogens" title="Category:Entheogens">Entheogens</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychedelics,_dissociatives_and_deliriants" title="Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants">Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Religious_behaviour_and_experience" title="Category:Religious behaviour and experience">Religious behaviour and experience</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Shamanism" title="Category:Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li>

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