Brooke, James

RAJAH JAMES BROOKE (1803-68)

Brooke dynasty: three generations of Englishmen who for more than 100 yrs

ruled over a Far Eastern principality in northern Borneo, a country of wild

mountains and raging rivers, inhabited by Malays and primitive tribesmen

(head-hunting Dyaks).

L&T: Described as "unusual combination of idealist and man of action". Born

in Benares, Bengal on 29 April 1803, second son of Thomas Brooke, chief of

the East India Co.'s provincial court at Moorshedabad, and his wife Anna

Maria Stuart - had elder brother Henry (died as young man in India) and four

sisters (plus one elder illegitimate brother). Was descendant of Sir Thomas

Vyner, lord mayor of London under Oliver Cromwell. He remained in India

until he was 12, receiving very little education, but was sent in 1815 to

England (parents remained in India), to live with paternal grandmother at

Reigate, but also under care of guardian Charles Kegan, a retired Indian

civil servant, in Bath, in whose family he spent much time. Was then sent

to Norwich Grammar School, but was known for his wild and unruly behaviour,

and after three years he simply left wihtout warning and went to Reigate,

refusing to return - this entire extent of his education. By this time

parents had returned from India, and he settled with them at Combe Grove,

Bath - here had a tutor, "poor Mr Williams", whom JB locked up in a cupboard

etc. Generally, was considered wild, but extremely attractive and likable

character.

In May 1819, aged 16, Brooke returned to India - had obtained an ensign's

commission in the British East India Company's army in Bengal, and was

posted to the 6th Native Infantry. Became a lieutenant in November 1821, and

in May 1822 - despite intense desire to become a

cavalry officer - was appointed (like his uncle) Sub-Assistant

Commissary-General, "a post for which he was totally unfitted". Following

year a report by his superiors commented on his excellent abilities, and

expressed hope that he would "receive an early impression of the necessity

for steadiness and decision"; also noted that he spent "a fair amount of his

time in pig-sticking and shooting", and remained "full of fun" and "pranks".

In early January 1825, outbreak of Anglo-Burmese War brought Brooke into

action with invading army coming through Assam - was allowed to act as a

cavalry officer (his great desire), though untrained, and led men in battle,

proving himself very adventurous and daring - led one entirely successful

charge against Burmese at battle near Rungpore. Was badly wounded in late

January - received bullet in his lung, which was only extracted from his

spine on his return to England in summer 1825, when was invalided out of

Bengal Army for maximum of 5 yrs. (Is unsubstantiated rumour that he was in

fact injured in genitals - and this given as reason for remaining unmarried

• but this seems unlikely. Others speculate that he was latent homosexual,

as had myriad of young, good-looking friends whom he treated as nephews -

seems probable, despite one illegitimate son). Wound seemed to heal, but

then early in 1826 infection broke out - spent next few years recovering:

became opiate addict during first year, as wound had to be kept open to stop

abcess forming inside, so needed them to sleep - but managed to get himself

off. Developed passionate love for opera during this period.

In July 1829, JB's leave of absence now running out and he had to return to

India: set of for East in the 'Carn Brae', but was wrecked off Isle of Wight

• health badly affected, so granted another six months, extended again by

severe winter. (Was clearly not so keen to return). Departed from England

again in March 1830 on 'Castle Huntley', reached Madras on 18 July - 5 yrs

were up on 30 July, so had 12 days to reach Calcutta: impossible over land

and no boats available, so gave up and resigned from the service of the East

India Co (much to father's displeasure). Instead, JB's imagination had now

been fired by stories of officers on 'Castle Huntley' of Eastern Archipelago

and China, and so decided instead to venture there - shows his incredible

restlessness, lack of discipline, general longing for unconventional etc.

So, stayed on ship and continued eastwards, to Penang, Malacca and

Singapore, then China and Sumatra, before returning to England in June 1831.

JB returned to family in Bath, spending next few years in idleness, dreaming

up plans for adventure plus nursing a growing ambition to achieve something

big, although realized he couldn't enter politics as lacked both enough

money and patrons - plus no Govt. offices forthcoming. Meanwhile, was

writing poems and almost married, but engagement broken off at last minute.

Began planning to buy a schooner for extensive trip (but father wouldn't

give him the money), but finally in 1834 he was allowed to purchase a small

brig, the 'Findlay': by this time, 31-yr-old JB had become convinced that -

without real riches or powerful friends - only way he was going to make his

mark was through his own endeavours and through adventure and daring in

dangerous situation etc. - planned to go to Indian Archipelago, north-east

coast of China, Japan, New Guinea, and the Pacific, and either to make

fortune and name by trade (probably smuggling) or discovery and derring-do.

However, voyage on the 'Findlay' - began with such high hopes in May 1834 -

was a disaster: in part because of its rather undefined objectives, in part

cos of personal disagreement among its leaders, JB quarrelling with captain

Kennedy (had been on Castle Huntley), and returned to England no richer in

1835.

Late in 1835, JB's father died, and he inherited £30,000 - he immediately

revived the schooner plan, bought the 142-ton armed 'Royalist', in which he

cruised the Mediterranean (1836-37), and then in December 1838 left for Far

East, with vague plans of becoming a trader in Java or the Celebes. Before

departure, JB had published prospectus for the voyage in the 'Athenaeum'

(Oct 1838), in which he criticized Dutch in Far East - pointed out lack of

attention Dutch had given to Borneo, Celebes, Sulu and the Moluccas, and

particularly to the Dayaks and Arafuras of the interior (was considered

highly dangerous and difficult to get into interior - so this his aim). JB

accepted Sir Stamford Raffles's (great hero of JB) notion of the "decay of

the Malay states", and believed Dutch policy had reduced the Archipelago to

a "state of anarchy and confusion, as repugnant to humanity, as it is

commercial prosperity". Meanwhile, British had done nothing to challenge

Dutch, and had only Singapore. JB reckoned that Malays would accept a

"strong, legitimate government", and that the "time must arrive, when we

shall again be in possession of these islands", as during the Napoleonic

Wars, "and we may accordingly look forward and prepare for the event in

various ways." Aim of his voyage was "to lead the way to an increased

knowledge of the Indian Archipelago", with HQ at Singapore, and to bring

British commerce and influence (with aim of ascendancy) into Borneo (Malludu

Bay - now called Marudu Bay - then supposedly in British possession) - aim

was to rouse the British public and British Govt by private action.

JB sailed first to Singapore (founded 20 years earlier by Raffles), arriving

in May 1839, and then in July set off for Sarawak, on island of Borneo -

westernmost portion of territory ruled by the Malay sultans of Brunei. JB

had learned that Sarawak then under rule of Rajah Muda Hassim, uncle of the

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin of Brunei, also in northern Borneo, who had since

1837 been engaged in war with several rebel Iban (Sea Dayak) tribes in

Sarawak owing to corruption and extortion of Malay rule (more peaceable Land

Dyaks were almost at point of starvation), and wanted to offer help -

thereby establishing British influence in area. Arrived in Kuching in

August, after surveying 150 miles of coast, and was received gratefully by

both Hassim and by governor of Sarawak, the Pangiran Makota. JB also managed

to establish friendly relations with Malay tribes on coast, spending 10 days

amongst Sea Dayaks (many of whom had, through Malay system or rewards and

extortion, become, like Malays, v. ruthless pirates), where was rather

perturbed by extensive dried heads on sticks. Then left and sailed around

island of Celebes (Nov-May 1840), where he astonished inhabitants by his

horsemanship and shooting skill - thoroughly enjoyed trip, met generally

friendly peoples and their rulers, spectacular scenery, and many remarkable

animals and plants - but funds running low: decided to pay one more visit to

Sarawak, then to sail on to Manila and China, and then to England.

Arrived back in Kuching in August 1840, to find rebellion had not been

suppressed - in fact, rebel Dyak forces were within 30 miles of town. Hassim

begged him to stay, and to visit his army - JB stayed for a while, but his

crew ill, and constant prevarication by both Hassim and Makota made it seem

that neither actually intended to act. Finally, on 4 November 1849, JB

announced his irrevocable decision to leave: in desperation, Hassim

announced that if he would stay and help crush rebels, would make him Rajah

of the country of Siniawan and Sarawak. JB agreed, and went to inspect Malay

army again: this in better state with arrival of Hassim's brother,

Bedruddin, and JB given supreme command, with help of Bedruddin. Army built

fort, manned by Lundu Dyaks, but this proved difficult to hold against

enemy: at last action began unavoidable - what JB had wanted to happen for

months - and rebels were lured out in front of their stockades: JB and his

English crew plus few Malays fell on them, and through surprise they

deserted camp and fled into jungle, leaving provisions and ammunition. From

this point rebels sought peace through their chief Matusain, but would only

negotiate with JB - latter managed to negotiate with Hassim that no rebel

would be put to death (major achievement), and so rebels put down arms and

property confiscated etc.

From Feb to April 1841, JB was in Singapore, and then returned to Kuching,

where house quickly built for him - although Hassim keen to get out of deal,

and Makota steadily becoming his enemy, JB already had loyal support of both

Land Dyaks and Chinese, who regarded him as their deliverer from corruption

of Malays. Stand-off came eventually between JB and Makota (who, amongst

other machinations, had tried to poison JB's Malay interpreter with

arsenic), and Hassim so worried by this (knew JB would have huge following

from indigenous tribes, local Malay chieftains, and Chinese) that he drew up

papers, and on 24 November 1841 JB ceremoniously proclaimed Rajah and

Governor of Sarawak in perpetuity, in return for small annual payment to the

Sultan of Brunei. This formally confirmed in Brunei by v. reluctant Sultan -

had two thumbs on right hand; suffering from throat cancer - in August 1842,

and JB now allowed to assume the title and powers of rajah.

Difficult job lay ahead during 1840s: were turbulent years - Malays

intriguing against him, and sea pirates infesting coast of Brunei determined

to destroy him. Further, JB had no army, no court, no administrators nor

administrative experience (only failed commercial ones), was not yet fluent

in Malay, and had only couple of fellow Europeans besides the crews of 2

ships (these latter generally away at Singapore and elsewhere) - plus

country's economy in v. bad shape. Moreover, JB found himself ruler of a

territory the size of Yorkshire in which the majority of the population

(Dyaks) had been for generations in a state of utter subjugation to the

Malay ruling class - plus were also a number of Chinese. Country was then in

bad state: Malays appropriated most of the revenue; pirates attacked from

the sea, head-hunters from the interior. Although ruling virtually

single-handedly, and with country extremely poor, JB had ambitious plans for

Sarawak - firmly believed that country had enormous mineral (esp antimony

and gold, plus hoped for diamonds) resources and agricultural potential:

weird, cos in spite of long journeys he made into interior, did not realize

that most of it was either swamp or mountain, and dreamed of great farms and

plantations - , and sent long pamphlet to England in 1842, in hope of

arousing interest and support, stating his aims - insisted on a just

administration, protection of oppressed Dyaks, encouragement of Chinese

merchants, plus establishment of British trading houses. Immediately

established skeleton police force - consisting of few friendly Malays and

Dyaks - and issued code of 8 simple but effective laws - in particular, he

substituted for Malay system of forced trade a simple system of taxation in

kind - and administered justice himself, with open court in his own house,

available to anyone who wished to see him night or day. Amazingly, he

managed to stamp out head-hunting in vicinity of Kuching and revive trade:

all this inspired huge loyalty and affection in Dyaks, plus from 1843-49,

also became deeply involved in thorny problem of extirpation of piracy, JB

himself generally going out on pirate-seeking missions - this occupied him

during whole of career.

JB ruled Sarawak for 17 years (1841-68): says much for JB's personal

qualities that in his first 5 yrs as Rajah he established peace and order,

won the respect and loyalty of the people, and began a determined campaign

to rid the country of pirates. Aim was to create an independent state of

free people, but was continually worried that Sarawak, with its tiny

population, might after his death be swallowed up by a large nation or taken

over again by Brunei. Much of the rest of his life was spent in trying to

obtain the protection of the British crown for the tiny country, but British

govt remained for most part uninterested.

Was with this aim in view that he returned to England for visit in 1847.

Despite govt.'s reluctance to get involved, JB had become in last few yrs a

popular hero in Britain, and was invited by Queen Victoria to Windsor,

received an honorary degree from Oxford, and the freedom of the City of

London, and was installed as a Knight Commander of the Bath. Was also

eventually officially appointed British Governor-General of Borneo, plus

Governor of Labuan (which sultan of Brunei had ceded to British), with

salary of £2,000 p.a.. Was also during this visit that JB decided to train

up his nephew, eldest son of sister Emma, James Brooke Johnson, as his

successor. JB did not however get on so well with his agent, Henry Wise:

although JB wanted financial investment from Britain into Sarawak, Wise's

proposal, on wave of British interest in Sarawak, to float a large public

compnay to buy Sarawak from JB and leave him to administer it, on a

profit-sharing basis, was rejected out of hand by JB - would have made him

immensely wealthy, but refused on grounds that he wished no one to make

money out of people of Sarawak - instead, allowed Wise to form a company

with exclusive trading rights in Sarawak and Labuan. JB also worried by fact

that had only unofficial recognition re Sarawak by British Govt.: was not

recognized as Rajah or ruler of a sovereign state - plus request for it to

be recognized as British Protectorate shelved. But did receive much-desired

knighthood in 1848, before return to Sarawak.

On return to Sarawak, JB faced with new wave of extremely aggressive piracy

from Saribas Dyaks and others - burning villages and headhunting. Over the

following months, he spent much time and effort rallying forces against

them, and finally succeeded in defeating the pirates in a decisive battle

involving much loss of life. As a result, in England he was attacked by

journalists and politicians in House of Commons (notably Hume and Cobden)

who knew little of the circumstances surrounding the battle, and who

maintained that a massacre of innocent seafarers had taken place. Although

many also supported him, attacks continued so that govt of Lord Aberdeen

therefore had established a Commission of Inquiry at Singapore (September

1854 - JB effectively on trial) to examine JB's actions which failed to

establish any inhumanity or illegality and completely vindicated JB.

However, despite having established his innocence, JB now weakened by

sickness and privations - plus affair further embittered him, making him

suspicious in all his subsequent dealings with British statesmen.

In 1857, the Rajah's Chinese subjects rose in rebellion and attacked the

capital Kuching by night, setting fire to the main buildings. The Rajah's

house was destroyed, and he lost everything - but he managed to escape by

swimming across the river. With the help of the Dayaks, the rebellion was

quelled, and at the end of the year 54-yr-old, exhausted JB (had also

suffered first of succession of strokes that would eventually kill him)

decided to return to England, leaving Sarawak in charge of his two nephews

(sons of sister, Emma Johnson), Captain Brooke-Brooke and Charles Johnson

Brooke. Spent 1857-60 in England, where in 1859 he bought a house - Burrator

• in 72 acres, between Plymouth and Tavistock, about 25 miles from Torquay,

and just on edge of Dartmoor.

During 1857-60, JB greatly strengthened by relationship with and support of

heiress Angela Burdett-Coutts - in 1858 she lent him £5,000 with which to

prop up the Sarawak economy, and in 1859 she bought an armed screw steamer

for the country, which greatly strengthened Sarawak's defences - plus could

be used for trade. She also lobbied her influential friends close to or in

Parliament, but in 1860 he was recalled to Sarawak by news of a plot by

disaffected chiefs to murder the entire white population there. He sailed

from Southampton in November 1860, with another loan of £500 from ABC - on

arrival, situation was not as bad as had been led to believe, but there were

complications arising out of the interference of the governor of an

adjoining British colony, Labuan. Once again, JB felt embittered towards

British govt, and relations between England and Sarawak grew steadily worse.

Meanwhile, trouble also brewed with one of his nephews, Captain

Brooke-Brooke, who had objected to JB's attempt - through influence of ABC -

to secure aid of Louis Napoleon: quarrel that ensued between uncle and

nephew was complicated, but is probable that was not helped by ABC's

hostility to and suspicion of both JB's nephews. (Although, in different

ways, nephews both seem to have been competent and adequate young men - in

particular, brave and capable of dealing with any military situation, plus

had inherited deep respect and love for Dyaks and Sarawak - they lacked

uncle's personality, and ABC - who now through her donations was playing an

increasingly influential role in decisions affecting future of Sarawak -

seems to have taken dislike to them both; distrusted Captain Brooke from

first, and found Charles cold and even hostile - did not help JB's

relationship with them).

JB returned to England at end of 1861, having formally appointed his nephew,

Captain Brooke, Rajah Muda, or heir presumptive. He now began negotiating

with the Belgians, but was still hoping for British support. Then, in late

1862, JB received startling news from Sarawak: Captain Brooke had become

convinced that the negotiations with British and foreign govts were against

the interests of Sarawak, and declared his intention of going to "all

lengths to put an end to the present state of matters". What this meant in

practice not clear, but amounted to revolt against his uncle's authority,

and once again JB prepared to sail for Sarawak, borrowing another £500 from

ABC for his passage. Was one thing to do before he left: Captain's defiant

conduct had debarred him from the succession, as was essential to leave

Sarawak to someone who could be trusted to carry out the 'White Rajah's'

intentions, so before departure made a new will which contained following

clause:

"I leave, commit and devise unto Angela Burdett Coutts . . . the Succession

to the Raj of Sarawak. And I do hereby nominate and appoint her to be my

true and lawful Successor in the dignity and office of the Rajah of Sarawak

now vested in me, to be held by her . . . as a public trust for the good of

the people together with the public property in which I have an interest

appertaining to the State of Sarawak, in implicit confidence that she will

arrange the future Government of Sarawak for the welfare of the people and

for the security and permanency of the liberties they now enjoy."

JB arrived back in Sarawak in March 1863, was again greeted by tumultuous

welcome from his people, and was relieved to find nephew's revolt had been

"upon paper only" - nevertheless, Captain Brooke was disinherited and

banished from the country. JB stayed on some months, however, to ensure that

his rule was secure, and to coach second, younger nephew, Charles Johnson

Brooke, for succession. Meanwhile, through lobbying of ABC and threat of

French intervention in Sarawak, in August 1863 the British govt. at last

formally recognized Sarawak as an independent state under rule of Rajah

Brooke, and following January first British consul was appointed.

JB left Sarawak in late 1863, in what would prove to be secure hands of

Charles Johnson Brooke, and spent remaining 4 and half years of life between

London and Burrator. Was reconciled with Captain Brooke - much to anger of

ABC - and made last try to get Lord Derby's govt to accept his offer of an

absolute cession of Sarawak to the British Crown. However, offer was

rejected, and from late 1867 JB increasingly affected by strokes. He died at

Burrator, Devon on 11 June 1868, leaving sovereignty of Sarawak in his will

to Charles Brooke and his heirs, and ultimately to "Her Majesty the Queen of

England, her heirs, and assigns for ever".ABC was one of three special

executors appointed to safeguard sovereignty, but her interest pretty much

over.Charles Johnson Brooke therefore succeeded to sovereignty of Sarawak,

and became the second rajah - benevolent 50-year autocracy followed

(1868-1917), in which boundaries of Sarawak extended until had swallowed up

almost the entire area of the ancient sultanate of Brunei. Was succeeded by

his eldest son, third and last "white rajah" Sir Charles Vyner de Windt

Brooke (ruled 1917-1946); under him Sarawak grew wealthy because of its oil,

but in 1941 was occupied by Japanese; during War Vyner established

provisional govt in London, but in 1946 he voluntarily terminated Brooke

rule and ceded Sarawak to Great Britain, bringing to end reign of white

rajahs.