Government, Types, Forms

Democracy (<a title="Greek language" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "rule by people") is a form of <a title="Government" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government">government</a> in which <a title="People" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/People">the people</a> have the <a title="Authority" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority">authority</a> to choose their governing <a title="Legislation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislation">legislation</a>. Who people are and how authority is shared among them are core issues for democratic development and <a title="Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution">constitution</a>. Some cornerstones of these issues are <a title="Freedom of assembly" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly">freedom of assembly</a> and <a title="Freedom of speech" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech">speech</a>, <a title="Social exclusion" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exclusion#Social_inclusion">inclusiveness</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Political equality" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_equality">equality</a>, <a title="Citizenship" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship">membership</a>, <a title="Consent of the governed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed">consent</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Voting rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_rights">voting</a>, <a title="Right to life" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_life">right to life</a> and <a title="Minority rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_rights">minority rights</a>.

Generally, there are two types of democracy: direct and representative. In a <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a>, the people directly <a class="mw-redirect" title="Deliberate" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberate">deliberate</a> and decide on <a title="Legislature" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislature">legislature</a>. In a <a title="Representative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy">representative democracy</a> the people elect representatives to deliberate and decide on legislature, such as in <a class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy">parliamentary</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_democracy">presidential democracy</a>. <a title="Liquid democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_democracy">Liquid democracy</a> combines elements of these two basic types.

The most common decision making approach of democracies has been the <a title="Majority rule" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_rule">majority rule</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Others are <a title="Supermajority" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermajority">supermajority</a> and <a title="Consensus democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_democracy">consensus</a>.

In the common variant of <a title="Liberal democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_democracy">liberal democracy</a> the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-britannica-4">[4]</a> Beside these general types of democracy there have been a wealth of further types (<a title="Democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#Types_of_governmental_democracies">see below</a>). <a title="Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic">Republics</a>, though often associated with democracy because of the shared principle of rule by <a title="Consent of the governed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed">consent of the governed</a>, are not necessarily democracies, as <a title="Republicanism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanism">republicanism</a> does not specify how the people are to rule.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes. The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy. Democracy makes all forces struggle repeatedly to realize their interests and devolves power from groups of people to sets of rules.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a class="mw-redirect" title="Western democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_democracy">Western democracy</a>, as distinct from that which existed in pre-modern societies, is generally considered to have originated in <a class="mw-redirect" title="City-states" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-states">city-states</a> such as <a title="Classical Athens" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Athens">Classical Athens</a> and the <a title="Roman Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a>, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in <a title="Western world" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world">the West</a> at the beginning of <a title="Late antiquity" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity">late antiquity</a>. The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older <a title="Middle French" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_French">Middle French</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Latin" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Latin">Middle Latin</a> equivalents.

According to American political scientist <a title="Larry Diamond" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Diamond">Larry Diamond</a>, democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair <a title="Election" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election">elections</a>; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the <a title="Human rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights">human rights</a> of all citizens; a <a title="Rule of law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law">rule of law</a>, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and <a title="Human rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights">human rights</a> are two different concepts and that "there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalisation of democracy and human rights".<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in <a class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-state" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_city-state">Greek city-states</a>, notably <a title="Classical Athens" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Athens">Athens</a>, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to <a title="Aristocracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the <a title="Suffrage" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffrage">suffrage</a> movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an <a title="Absolute monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy">absolute monarchy</a>, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an <a title="Oligarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-10">[10]</a> are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. <a title="Karl Popper" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper">Karl Popper</a> defined democracy in contrast to <a title="Dictatorship" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship">dictatorship</a> or <a title="Tyrant" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrant">tyranny</a>, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a <a title="Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution">revolution</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

<h2>Contents</h2>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Characteristics<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Characteristics" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=1" data-section="1">Edit</a></h2>

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<div class="legend">  Most democratic (closest to 10)</div>

<div class="legend">  Least democratic (closest to 0)</div>

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Democracy's <a title="De facto" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto">de facto</a> status in the world as of 2018, according to <a title="Democracy Index" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index">Democracy Index</a> by <a title="The Economist" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist">The Economist</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-12">[12]</a></div>

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<div class="thumbcaption">Democracy's <a title="De jure" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure">de jure</a> status in the world as of 2019; only <a title="Saudi Arabia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a title="Oman" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman">Oman</a>, the <a title="United Arab Emirates" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates">UAE</a>, <a title="Qatar" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar">Qatar</a>, <a title="Brunei" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei">Brunei</a>, and the <a title="Vatican City" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_City">Vatican</a>officially admit to be undemocratic</div>

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No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but <a class="mw-redirect" title="Legal equality" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_equality">legal equality</a>, <a title="Political freedom" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_freedom">political freedom</a> and <a title="Rule of law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law">rule of law</a> have been identified as important characteristics.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-14">[14]</a> These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being <a title="Equality before the law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_before_the_law">equal before the law</a> and having equal access to legislative processes.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>] For example, in a <a title="Representative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy">representative democracy</a>, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative,[<a title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions">according to whom?</a>] and the freedom of its eligible citizens is secured by legitimised rights and liberties which are typically protected by a <a title="Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution">constitution</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-BKMIT-15">[15]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-BKHenaff-16">[16]</a> Other uses of "democracy" include that of <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a>.

One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: upward control (sovereignty residing at the lowest levels of authority), political equality, and social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

The term "democracy" is sometimes used as shorthand for <a title="Liberal democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_democracy">liberal democracy</a>, which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as <a title="Pluralism (political philosophy)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)">political pluralism</a>; equality before the law; the <a title="Right to petition" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_petition">right to petition</a> elected officials for redress of grievances; <a title="Due process" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Due_process">due process</a>; <a title="Civil liberties" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_liberties">civil liberties</a>; <a title="Human rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights">human rights</a>; and elements of <a title="Civil society" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_society">civil society</a> outside the government.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>] <a title="Roger Scruton" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Scruton">Roger Scruton</a> argues that democracy alone cannot provide personal and political freedom unless the institutions of <a title="Civil society" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_society">civil society</a> are also present.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

In some countries, notably in the <a title="United Kingdom" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> which originated the <a title="Westminster system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system">Westminster system</a>, the dominant principle is that of <a title="Parliamentary sovereignty" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a>, while maintaining <a title="Judicial independence" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_independence">judicial independence</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Kopstein2014-19">[19]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In the <a title="United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>, <a title="Separation of powers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers">separation of powers</a> is often cited as a central attribute. In <a title="India" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the <a title="Constitution of India" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India">Constitution of India</a> which includes <a title="Judicial review" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_review">judicial review</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a <a title="State (polity)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)">political state</a>, the principles also are applicable to private <a class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation">organisations</a>.

There are many decision making methods used in democracies, but <a title="Majority rule" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_rule">majority rule</a> is the dominant form. Without compensation, like legal protections of individual or group rights, <a title="Minority group" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_group">political minorities</a> can be oppressed by the "<a title="Tyranny of the majority" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority">tyranny of the majority</a>". Majority rule is a competitive approach, opposed to <a title="Consensus democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_democracy">consensus democracy</a>, creating the need that <a class="mw-redirect" title="Elections" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections">elections</a>, and generally <a title="Deliberation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberation">deliberation</a>, are substantively and procedurally "<a class="extiw" title="wikt:fair" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fair">fair</a>," i.e., <a class="extiw" title="wikt:just" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/just">just</a> and <a class="extiw" title="wikt:equitable" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/equitable">equitable</a>. In some countries, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom (political)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_(political)">freedom of political expression</a>, <a title="Freedom of speech" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech">freedom of speech</a>, <a title="Freedom of the press" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press">freedom of the press</a>, and <a title="E-democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-democracy">internet democracy</a> are considered important to ensure that voters are well informed, enabling them to vote according to their own interests.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Barak27-22">[22]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-24">[24]</a> With its emphasis on notions of <a title="Social contract" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract">social contract</a> and the collective will of all the voters, democracy can also be characterised as a form of political <a title="Collectivism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism">collectivism</a> because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in lawmaking.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-JHUPress-25">[25]</a>

While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the republican form of government, the term "<a title="Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic">republic</a>" classically has encompassed both democracies and <a title="Aristocracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy">aristocracies</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-William_R.Everdell_2000-27">[27]</a> Many democracies are <a title="Constitutional monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy">constitutional monarchies</a>, such as the <a title="United Kingdom" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">History<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: History" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=2" data-section="2">Edit</a></h2>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="History of democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_democracy">History of democracy</a></div>

<div class="thumbcaption">Nineteenth-century painting by <a title="Philipp Foltz" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Foltz">Philipp Foltz</a>depicting the Athenian politician <a title="Pericles" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles">Pericles</a>delivering his famous <a class="mw-redirect" title="Pericles' funeral oration" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles%27_funeral_oration">funeral oration</a> in front of the <a title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)">Assembly</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-28">[28]</a></div>

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<h3 class="in-block">Historic origins and proto-democratic societies<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Historic origins and proto-democratic societies" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=3" data-section="3">Edit</a></h3>

Retrospectively different polity, outside of declared democracies, have been described as proto-democratic (see <a title="History of democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_democracy#Historic_origins">History of democracy</a>).

<h3 class="in-block">Ancient origins<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Ancient origins" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=4" data-section="4">Edit</a></h3>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a title="Athenian democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy">Athenian democracy</a></div>

The term "democracy" first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of <a title="Athens" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens">Athens</a> during <a title="Classical antiquity" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity">classical antiquity</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-BKDunn1992-29">[29]</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;30-0" class="reference" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; font-style: normal; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: 1; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; vertical-align: super; background: none; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaaflaubOberWallace2007%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2014%5D%5D%3Csup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22%3E&#91;%3Ci%3E%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C%3Cspan_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)%22%3Epage&nbsp;needed%3C/span%3E%5D%5D%3C/i%3E&#93;%3C/sup%3E-30">[30]</a> The word comes from demos, "common people" and kratos, "strength".<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Led by <a title="Cleisthenes" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a>, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC. Cleisthenes is referred to as "the father of <a title="Athenian democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy">Athenian democracy</a>."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the <a title="Sortition" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortition">random selection</a> of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-34">[34]</a> All eligible citizens were allowed to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners (μέτοικοι / métoikoi), non-landowners, and men under 20 years of age.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-35">[35]</a>[<a title="Athenian democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy">contradictory</a>] The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-SLape2009-36">[36]</a>

Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also the most direct in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaaflaubOberWallace20075-37">[37]</a> Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for "rights"<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberHedrick1996107-38">[38]</a>), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<a class="mw-redirect" title="Range voting" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_voting">Range voting</a> appeared in <a title="Sparta" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta">Sparta</a> as early as 700 BC. The <a title="Apella" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apella">Apella</a> was an assembly of the people, held once a month, in which every male citizen of at least 30 years of age could participate. In the Apella, Spartans elected leaders and cast votes by range voting and shouting. <a title="Aristotle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> called this "childish", as compared with the stone voting ballots used by the Athenians. Sparta adopted it because of its simplicity, and to prevent any bias voting, buying, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic elections.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

Even though the <a title="Roman Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</a> contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of <a title="Gerrymandering" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrymandering">gerrymandering</a>, so most high officials, including members of the <a title="Roman Senate" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate">Senate</a>, came from a few wealthy and noble families.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In addition, the Roman Republic was the first government in the western world to have a <a title="Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic">Republic</a> as a nation-state, although it didn't have much of a democracy. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-43">[43]</a> and today's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Other cultures, such as the <a title="Iroquois" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois">Iroquois</a> Nation in the Americas between around 1450 and 1600 AD also developed a form of democratic society before they came in contact with the Europeans. This indicates that forms of democracy may have been invented in other societies around the world.

<h3 class="in-block">Middle Ages<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Middle Ages" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=5" data-section="5">Edit</a></h3>

During the <a title="Middle Ages" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</a>, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small part of the population. These included:

<ul>

<li>the <a title="Thing (assembly)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thing_(assembly)">Things</a> of <a title="Scandinavia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>,</li>

<li>The <a class="mw-redirect" title="1061 Papal election" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/1061_Papal_election">1061 Papal election</a>,</li>

<li>the <a title="Althing" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althing">Althing</a> in <a title="Iceland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland">Iceland</a>,</li>

<li>the <a title="Løgting" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B8gting">Løgting</a> in the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Faeroe Islands" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faeroe_Islands">Faeroe Islands</a>,</li>

<li><a title="Papal conclave" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_conclave">Papal conclaves</a>, <a title="Appointment of Catholic bishops" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appointment_of_Catholic_bishops">Elections of Bishops</a>, Abbots, Abbesses carried on, and evolved from their classical roots.</li>

<li>the <a title="Election of Uthman" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_of_Uthman">election of Uthman</a> in the <a title="Rashidun Caliphate" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>,</li>

<li>the South Indian Kingdom of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Chola" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola">Chola</a> in the state of <a title="Tamil Nadu" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> in the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Subcontinent" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a> had an electoral system at 920 A.D., about 1100 years ago,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-The_Hindu-45">[45]</a></li>

<li><a title="Carantania" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carantania">Carantania</a>, old <a title="Slovenes" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenes">Slavic/Slovenian</a> principality, the Ducal Inauguration from 7th to 15th century,</li>

<li>the upper-caste election of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Gopala (Pala king)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopala_(Pala_king)">Gopala</a> in the <a title="Bengal" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal">Bengal</a> region of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Subcontinent" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a>,</li>

<li>the <a title="Holy Roman Empire" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>'s <a title="Hoftag" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoftag">Hoftag</a> and <a title="Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Diet_(Holy_Roman_Empire)">Imperial Diets</a> (mostly Nobles and Clergy but 100 Free Cities were included),</li>

<li><a title="Frisian freedom" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisian_freedom">Frisia</a> in the 10th–15th Century (Weight of vote based on landownership) including the peasant republic of the <a title="Dithmarschen" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dithmarschen">Dithmarschen</a></li>

<li>the <a title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> (10% of population),</li>

<li>certain <a class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Italy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Italy">medieval Italian</a> city-states such as <a title="Venice" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice">Venice</a>, <a title="Genoa" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoa">Genoa</a>, <a title="Florence" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence">Florence</a>, <a title="Pisa" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisa">Pisa</a>, <a title="Lucca" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucca">Lucca</a>, <a title="Amalfi" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalfi">Amalfi</a>, <a title="Siena" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siena">Siena</a> and <a title="San Marino" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marino">San Marino</a></li>

<li>the 200+ Royal and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Free Cities" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Free_Cities">Imperial Free Cities</a> of Central and Northern Europe, including <a title="Strasbourg" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, <a title="Cologne" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne">Cologne</a>, <a title="Frankfurt" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, <a title="Lübeck" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck">Lübeck</a>, <a title="Hamburg" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, <a title="Bremen" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen">Bremen</a>, <a title="Nuremberg" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, <a title="Bruges" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges">Bruges</a>, <a title="Ghent" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent">Ghent</a>, <a title="Augsburg" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsburg">Augsburg</a>, <a title="Amsterdam" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, <a title="Prague" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague">Prague</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Krakow" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krakow">Krakow</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Gdansk" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gdansk">Gdansk</a>, organized under <a class="mw-redirect" title="Stadtrecht" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadtrecht">Stadtrecht</a> or German Town Law.</li>

<li>the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Hansetag" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansetag">Hansetag</a> of the <a title="Hanseatic League" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League">Hanseatic League</a>.</li>

<li>the various permanent town leagues or <a class="mw-redirect" title="Städtebund" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A4dtebund">Städtebund</a> such as the <a title="Lusatian League" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusatian_League">Lusatian League</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Decapole" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decapole">Decapole</a>, and the <a title="Pentapolitana" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentapolitana">Pentapolitana</a></li>

<li>the <a title="Republic of Ragusa" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ragusa">Republic of Ragusa</a> (now Dubrovnik) on the Dalmatian coast in what is today Croatia.</li>

<li>the free pirate groups of the Baltic such as the <a title="Victual Brothers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victual_Brothers">Victual Brothers</a>.</li>

<li>the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Cortes of León" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortes_of_Le%C3%B3n">Cortes of León</a>,</li>

<li>the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Tuatha" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuatha">tuatha</a> system in early medieval Ireland,</li>

<li>the <a title="Veche" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veche">Veche</a> in <a title="Novgorod Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod_Republic">Novgorod</a> and <a title="Pskov Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pskov_Republic">Pskov Republics</a> of medieval Russia,</li>

<li><a title="The Estates" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Estates">The States</a> in <a title="German Tyrol" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Tyrol">Tirol</a> and the <a title="Old Swiss Confederacy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy">Old Swiss Confederacy</a> in <a title="Switzerland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland">Switzerland</a>,</li>

<li>the autonomous merchant city of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sakai, Osaka" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakai,_Osaka">Sakai</a> in the 16th century in Japan,</li>

<li>Volta-Nigeric societies such as <a title="Kingdom of Nri" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nri">Igbo</a>.</li>

<li>the Mekhk-Khel system of the <a title="Nakh peoples" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakh_peoples">Nakh peoples</a> of the North Caucasus, by which representatives to the Council of Elders for each <a title="Teip" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teip">teip</a> (clan) were popularly elected by that teip's members.</li>

<li>The 10th Sikh <a title="Guru Gobind Singh" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru_Gobind_Singh">Guru Gobind Singh</a> ji (Nanak X) established the world's first Sikh democratic republic state ending the aristocracy on day of 1st Vasakh 1699 and Gurbani as sole constitution of this Sikh republic on the Indian subcontinent.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>]</li>

</ul>

Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords.

The <a title="Kouroukan Fouga" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kouroukan_Fouga">Kouroukan Fouga</a> divided the <a title="Mali Empire" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire">Mali Empire</a> into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a <a title="Constitutional monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> than a <a title="Democratic republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_republic">democratic republic</a>.

<div class="thumbcaption"><a title="Magna Carta" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta">Magna Carta</a>, 1215, England</div>

</div>

The <a title="Parliament of England" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_England">Parliament of England</a> had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into <a title="Magna Carta" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta">Magna Carta</a> (1215), which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects and implicitly supported what became the English writ of <a title="Habeas corpus" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habeas_corpus">habeas corpus</a>, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The first representative national assembly in <a title="Kingdom of England" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England">England</a> was <a title="Simon de Montfort's Parliament" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort%27s_Parliament">Simon de Montfort's Parliament</a> in 1265.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The emergence of <a title="Parliament of England" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_England#The_emergence_of_parliament_as_an_institution">petitioning</a> is some of the earliest evidence of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people. However, the power to call parliament remained at the pleasure of the monarch.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

<h3 class="in-block">Modern era<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Modern era" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=6" data-section="6">Edit</a></h3>

<h4 class="in-block">Early modern period<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Early modern period" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=7" data-section="7">Edit</a></h4>

In 17th century England, there was <a title="Magna Carta" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta#17th%E2%80%9318th_centuries">renewed interest in Magna Carta</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The Parliament of England passed the <a title="Petition of Right" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petition_of_Right">Petition of Right</a> in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The <a title="English Civil War" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War">English Civil War</a> (1642–1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-53">[53]</a> during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the <a title="Putney Debates" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putney_Debates">Putney Debates</a> of 1647.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Subsequently, <a title="The Protectorate" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protectorate">the Protectorate</a> (1653–59) and the <a class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Restoration">English Restoration</a> (1660) restored more autocratic rule, although Parliament passed the <a title="Habeas Corpus Act 1679" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_1679">Habeas Corpus Act</a> in 1679 which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. After the <a title="Glorious Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688, the <a title="Bill of Rights 1689" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689">Bill of Rights</a> was enacted in 1689 which codified certain rights and liberties, and is still in effect. The Bill set out the requirement for regular elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of Europe at the time, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Royal absolutism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_absolutism">royal absolutism</a> would not prevail.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-refNARoP-55">[55]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-refIIP-56">[56]</a>

In the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th and 17th centuries, the <a title="Cossack Hetmanate" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Zaporizhian Sich" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaporizhian_Sich">Zaporizhian Sich</a>, the holder of the highest post of <a title="Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetmans_of_Ukrainian_Cossacks">Hetman</a> was elected by the representatives from the country's districts.

In North America, representative government began in <a title="Jamestown, Virginia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia">Jamestown, Virginia</a>, with the election of the <a title="House of Burgesses" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Burgesses">House of Burgesses</a> (forerunner of the <a title="Virginia General Assembly" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_General_Assembly">Virginia General Assembly</a>) in 1619. English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose local governance was democratic and which contributed to the democratic development of the <a title="United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>;<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-57">[57]</a> although these local assemblies had some small amounts of devolved power, the ultimate authority was held by the Crown and the English Parliament. The <a title="Puritans" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritans">Puritans</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim Fathers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim_Fathers">Pilgrim Fathers</a>), <a title="Baptists" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptists">Baptists</a>, and <a title="Quakers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers">Quakers</a> who founded these colonies applied the democratic organisation of their congregations also to the administration of their communities in worldly matters.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<h4 class="in-block">18th and 19th centuries<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: 18th and 19th centuries" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=8" data-section="8">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="thumbcaption">The establishment of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Universal male suffrage" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_male_suffrage">universal male suffrage</a> in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.</div>

</div>

The <a title="First Parliament of Great Britain" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Parliament_of_Great_Britain">first Parliament of Great Britain</a> was established in 1707, after the merger of the <a title="Kingdom of England" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England">Kingdom of England</a> and the <a title="Kingdom of Scotland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a> under the <a title="Acts of Union 1707" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707">Acts of Union</a>. Although the monarch increasingly became a <a title="Constitutional monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy">figurehead</a>,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-61">[61]</a>only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population (less than 3% as late as 1780).<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-62">[62]</a> During the <a title="Age of Liberty" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Liberty">Age of Liberty</a> in Sweden (1718–1772), <a class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights">civil rights</a> were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament. The taxed peasantry was represented in parliament, although with little influence, but commoners without taxed property had no suffrage.

The creation of the short-lived <a title="Corsican Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsican_Republic">Corsican Republic</a> in 1755 marked the first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic <a title="Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution">constitution</a> (all men and women above age of 25 could vote<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-63">[63]</a>). This <a title="Corsican Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsican_Constitution">Corsican Constitution</a> was the first based on <a title="Age of Enlightenment" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> principles and included <a class="mw-redirect" title="Female suffrage" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_suffrage">female suffrage</a>, something that was not granted in most other democracies until the 20th century.

In the <a title="Colonial history of the United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States">American colonial period before 1776</a>, and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. This changed state by state, beginning with the republican State of New Connecticut, soon after called <a title="Vermont" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermont">Vermont</a>, which, on declaring independence of Great Britain in 1777, adopted a constitution modelled on Pennsylvania's with citizenship and democratic suffrage for males with or without property, and went on to abolish slavery.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-64">[64]</a> On the <a title="Frontier Thesis" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier_Thesis">American frontier</a>, democracy became a way of life, with more widespread social, economic and political equality.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-65">[65]</a>Although not described as a democracy by the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Founding fathers of the united states" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_fathers_of_the_united_states">founding fathers</a>,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-66">[66]</a> they shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principles of natural freedom and equality.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-67">[67]</a>

The <a title="American Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution">American Revolution</a> led to the adoption of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution">United States Constitution</a> in 1787, the oldest surviving, still active, governmental <a class="mw-redirect" title="Codified constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codified_constitution">codified constitution</a>. The Constitution provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some, but did not end <a title="Slavery in the United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States">slavery</a> nor extend <a title="Voting rights in the United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States">voting rights in the United States</a>, instead leaving the issue of suffrage to the individual states.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Generally, suffrage was limited to white male property owners and taxpayers,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-69">[69]</a> of whom between 60% and 90% were eligible to vote by the end of the 1780s.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-70">[70]</a>The <a title="United States Bill of Rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights">Bill of Rights</a> in 1791 set limits on government power to protect personal freedoms but had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 130 years after ratification.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-71">[71]</a>

<div class="thumbcaption">Statue of <a title="Athena" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena">Athena</a>, the patron goddess of <a title="Athens" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens">Athens</a>, in front of the <a title="Austrian Parliament Building" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Parliament_Building">Austrian Parliament Building</a>. Athena has been used as an international symbol of freedom and democracy since at least the late eighteenth century.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-72">[72]</a></div>

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<tbody>

<tr>

<th colspan="2">Ustawa Rządowa</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<div>First page of original manuscript of Constitution of 3 May 1791, registered (upper right corner) on 5 May 1791</div>

</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Created6</th>

<td>October 1788 – 3 May 1791</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row"><a title="Ratification" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratification">Ratified</a></th>

<td>3 May 1791; 228 years ago</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Location</th>

<td><a title="Central Archives of Historical Records" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Archives_of_Historical_Records">Central Archives of Historical Records</a>, <a title="Warsaw" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw">Warsaw</a></td>

</tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Author(s)</th>

<td>

<ul>

<li>King <a title="Stanisław August Poniatowski" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski">Stanisław II August</a></li>

<li><a title="Stanisław Małachowski" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ma%C5%82achowski">Stanisław Małachowski</a></li>

<li><a title="Hugo Kołłątaj" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj">Hugo Kołłątaj</a></li>

<li><a title="Ignacy Potocki" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Potocki">Ignacy Potocki</a></li>

<li><a title="Stanisław Staszic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic">Stanisław Staszic</a></li>

<li><a title="Scipione Piattoli" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipione_Piattoli">Scipione Piattoli</a> et al.</li>

</ul>

</div>

</td>

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</tbody>

</table>

<div class="thumbcaption"><a class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791 (painting)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791(painting)">Constitution of 3 May 1791</a>, by <a title="Jan Matejko" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Matejko">Matejko</a>. Foreground: King <a title="Stanisław August Poniatowski" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski">Stanisław August</a> (left) enters <a class="mw-redirect" title="St. John's Archcathedral (Warsaw)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.John%27s_Archcathedral(Warsaw)">St John's Cathedral</a>, in <a title="Warsaw" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, where <a title="Deputy (legislator)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy(legislator)">deputies</a>will swear to uphold the constitution. Background: the <a title="Royal Castle, Warsaw" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Castle,_Warsaw">Royal Castle</a>, where the Constitution has just been adopted.</div>

</div>

<a title="Constitution of 3 May 1791" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791">The Polish Constitution</a> of 3 May 1791 (Polish: Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja) is called "the first constitution of its kind in Europe" by historian Norman Davies. Short lived due to Russian, German, Austrian aggression, It was instituted by the Government Act (Polish: Ustawa rządowa) adopted on that date by the Sejm (parliament) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Davies1992-73">[73]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-74">[74]</a> (<a title="Polish language" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language">Polish</a>: Ustawa Rządowa, "Governance Act"), was a <a title="Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution">constitution</a> adopted by the <a title="Great Sejm" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sejm">Great Sejm</a> ("Four-Year Sejm", meeting in 1788–92) for the <a title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, a <a title="Dual monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_monarchy">dual monarchy</a> comprising the <a title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a> and the <a title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>. The Constitution was designed to correct the Commonwealth's political flaws and had been preceded by a period of agitation for—and gradual introduction of—reforms, beginning with the <a title="Convocation Sejm (1764)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convocation_Sejm_(1764)">Convocation Sejm of 1764</a> and the consequent <a title="Royal elections in Poland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland">election</a> that year of <a title="Stanisław August Poniatowski" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a> as the Commonwealth's last king.

The Constitution sought to implement a more effective <a title="Constitutional monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, mitigating the worst abuses of <a title="Serfdom" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serfdom">serfdom</a>. It banned pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the <a title="Liberum veto" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberum_veto">liberum veto</a>, which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any single deputy, who could veto and thus undo all the legislation that had been adopted by that Sejm. The Commonwealth's neighbours reacted with hostility to the adoption of the Constitution. <a title="Frederick William II of Prussia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_II_of_Prussia">King Frederick William II</a> broke <a title="Kingdom of Prussia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia">Prussia</a>'s alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and joined with <a title="Catherine the Great" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Great">Catherine the Great</a>'s <a class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russia">Imperial Russia</a> and the <a title="Targowica Confederation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targowica_Confederation">Targowica Confederation</a> of anti-reform Polish magnates to defeat the Commonwealth in the <a title="Polish–Russian War of 1792" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792">Polish–Russian War of 1792</a>.

The 1791 Constitution was in force for less than 19 months.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Machnikowski2010-75">[75]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Ligeza2017-76">[76]</a> It was declared null and void by the <a title="Grodno Sejm" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grodno_Sejm">Grodno Sejm</a> that met in 1793,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Davies1992-73">[73]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Ligeza2017-76">[76]</a> though the Sejm's legal power to do so was questionable.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Ligeza2017-76">[76]</a> The <a title="Second Partition of Poland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland">Second</a> and <a title="Third Partition of Poland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland">Third Partitions</a> of Poland (1793, 1795) ultimately ended Poland's sovereign existence until the close of <a title="World War I" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I">World War I</a> in 1918. Over that 123-year period, the 1791 Constitution helped keep alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of the country's sovereignty. In the words of two of its principal authors, <a title="Ignacy Potocki" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Potocki">Ignacy Potocki</a> and <a title="Hugo Kołłątaj" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj">Hugo Kołłątaj</a>, the 1791 Constitution was "the last will and testament of the expiring Homeland."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Fatherland-77">[a]</a>

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 combined a <a title="Monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy">monarchic</a> <a title="Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic">republic</a> with a clear division of executive, legislative, and judiciary powers. It is generally considered Europe's first, and the world's second, modern written national constitution, after the <a class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution">United States Constitution</a> that had come into force in 1789.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Ligeza2017-76">[76]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Constitution-80">[b]</a>

In 1789, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary France" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_France">Revolutionary France</a> adopted the <a title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> and, although short-lived, the <a title="National Convention" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Convention">National Convention</a> was elected by all men in 1792.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-81">[79]</a> However, in the early 19th century, little of democracy—as theory, practice, or even as word—remained in the North Atlantic world.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Denning2004-82">[80]</a>

During this period, <a title="Slavery" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery">slavery</a> remained a social and economic institution in places around the world. This was particularly the case in the <a title="United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>, and especially in the last fifteen <a class="mw-redirect" title="Slave state" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_state">slave states</a> that kept slavery legal in the American South until the <a title="American Civil War" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War">Civil War</a>. A variety of organisations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality.

The United Kingdom's <a title="Slave Trade Act 1807" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a> banned the trade across the <a title="British Empire" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire">British Empire</a>, which was <a title="Blockade of Africa" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa">enforced internationally</a> by the Royal Navy under treaties Britain negotiated with other nations.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Lovejoy-83">[81]</a> As the voting franchise in the U.K. was increased, it also was made more uniform in a series of reforms beginning with the <a title="Reform Act 1832" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Act_1832">Reform Act 1832</a>, although the United Kingdom did not manage to become a complete democracy well into the <a title="20th century" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_century">20th century</a>. In 1833, the United Kingdom passed the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery Abolition Act" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act">Slavery Abolition Act</a> which took effect across the British Empire.

<a title="Universal suffrage" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage">Universal male suffrage</a> was established in <a title="France" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/France">France</a> in March 1848 in the wake of the <a title="French Revolution of 1848" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848">French Revolution of 1848</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-84">[82]</a> In 1848, several <a title="Revolutions of 1848" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848">revolutions broke out in Europe</a> as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-85">[83]</a>

In the <a title="1860 United States Census" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860_United_States_Census">1860 United States Census</a>, the slave population in the United States had grown to four million,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-86">[84]</a> and in <a class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States">Reconstruction</a> after the Civil War (late 1860s), the newly <a title="Abolitionism in the United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States">freed slaves</a> became citizens with a nominal right to vote for men. Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> gained passage by the United States Congress of the <a title="Voting Rights Act of 1965" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-87">[85]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-88">[86]</a>

In 1876 the Ottoman Empire transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, and held two elections the next year to elect members to her newly formed parliament.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-HK-89">[87]</a> Provisional Electoral Regulations were issued on 29 October 1876, stating that the elected members of the Provincial Administrative Councils would elect members to the first <a class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of the Ottoman Empire" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Ottoman_Empire">Parliament</a>. On 24 December a new constitution was promulgated, which provided for a <a title="Bicameralism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameralism">bicameral</a> Parliament with a <a title="Senate of the Ottoman Empire" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_the_Ottoman_Empire">Senate</a> appointed by <a title="Abdul Hamid II" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II">the Sultan</a> and a popularly elected <a title="Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Ottoman_Empire)">Chamber of Deputies</a>. Only men above the age of 30 who were competent in <a title="Turkish language" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language">Turkish</a> and had full civil rights were allowed to stand for election. Reasons for disqualification included holding dual citizenship, being employed by a foreign government, being bankrupt, employed as a servant, or having "notoriety for ill deeds". Full universal suffrage was achieved in 1934.

<h4 class="in-block">20th and 21st centuries<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: 20th and 21st centuries" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=9" data-section="9">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="thumbcaption">The number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on <a class="mw-redirect" title="Polity IV" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity_IV">Polity IV</a> scale, another widely used measure of democracy</div>

</div>

20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive "waves of democracy", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonisation">decolonisation</a>, and religious and economic circumstances.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-90">[88]</a> Global waves of "democratic regression" reversing democratization, have also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:1-91">[89]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-92">[90]</a>

<a title="World War I" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I">World War I</a> and the dissolution of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_empire">Ottoman</a> and <a title="Austria-Hungary" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a> empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic.

In the 1920s democracy flourished and <a title="Timeline of women's suffrage" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage">women's suffrage</a> advanced, but the <a title="Great Depression" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression">Great Depression</a> brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. <a title="Fascism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism">Fascism</a> and dictatorships flourished in <a title="Nazi Germany" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, <a title="Italy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy">Italy</a>, <a title="Spain" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain">Spain</a> and <a title="Portugal" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal">Portugal</a>, as well as non-democratic governments in the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Baltics" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltics">Baltics</a>, the <a title="Balkans" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a title="Brazil" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a title="Cuba" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a title="China" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/China">China</a>, and <a title="Japan" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan">Japan</a>, among others.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-93">[91]</a>

<a title="World War II" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</a> brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The <a class="mw-redirect" title="Democratisation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratisation">democratisation</a> of the <a title="Allied Control Council" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Control_Council">American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany</a> (disputed<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-94">[92]</a>), Austria, Italy, and the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied Japan" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupied_Japan">occupied Japan</a> served as a model for the later theory of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Government change" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_change">government change</a>. However, most of <a title="Eastern Europe" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, including the <a class="mw-redirect" title="German Democratic Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic">Soviet sector of Germany</a> fell into the non-democratic <a class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet bloc" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_bloc">Soviet bloc</a>.

The war was followed by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonisation">decolonisation</a>, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-95">[93]</a> Countries that were once part of the <a title="British Empire" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire">British Empire</a> often adopted the British <a title="Westminster system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system">Westminster system</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-96">[94]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-97">[95]</a>

By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in <a title="Communist state" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_state">"Communist" nations</a> and the former colonies.)

A subsequent wave of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Democratisation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratisation">democratisation</a> brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. <a class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish democratic transition" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_democratic_transition">Spain</a>, <a title="Portuguese transition to democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_transition_to_democracy">Portugal</a> (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (<a class="mw-redirect" title="Argentine transition to democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine_transition_to_democracy">Argentina in 1983</a>, <a title="History of Bolivia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, <a title="History of Uruguay" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Uruguay">Uruguay in 1984</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" title="History of Brazil (1985–present)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_(1985%E2%80%93present)">Brazil in 1985</a>, and <a title="Chilean transition to democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilean_transition_to_democracy">Chile in the early 1990s</a>). This was followed by nations in <a title="East Asia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia">East</a> and <a title="South Asia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia">South Asia</a> by the mid-to-late 1980s.

Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the <a class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1985-1991)">collapse of the Soviet Union</a>, the associated end of the <a title="Cold War" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War">Cold War</a>, and the democratisation and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalisation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisation">liberalisation</a> of the former <a class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern bloc" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_bloc">Eastern bloc</a> countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the <a title="European Union" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union">European Union</a>. In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the <a title="Philippines" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines">Philippines</a> with the rise of <a title="Corazon Aquino" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corazon_Aquino">Corazon Aquino</a>, who would later be known as the Mother of Asian Democracy.

<div class="thumbcaption"><a title="Corazon Aquino" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corazon_Aquino">Corazon Aquino</a> taking the Oath of Office, becoming the first female president in Asia</div>

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The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesian Revolution of 1998" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_Revolution_of_1998">Indonesian Revolution of 1998</a>, the <a title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milo&scaron;ević" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87">Bulldozer Revolution</a> in <a class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, the <a title="Rose Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Revolution">Rose Revolution</a> in <a title="Georgia (country)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)">Georgia</a>, the <a title="Orange Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Revolution">Orange Revolution</a> in Ukraine, the <a title="Cedar Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedar_Revolution">Cedar Revolution</a> in Lebanon, the <a title="Tulip Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip_Revolution">Tulip Revolution</a> in <a title="Kyrgyzstan" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, and the <a class="mw-redirect" title="2010–2011 Tunisian revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Tunisian_revolution">Jasmine Revolution</a> in <a title="Tunisia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.

According to <a title="Freedom House" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House">Freedom House</a>, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972).<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-98">[96]</a>According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 percent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-99">[97]</a>

Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-100">[98]</a> The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves.

In 2007 the <a title="United Nations" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations">United Nations</a> declared 15 September the <a title="International Day of Democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Democracy">International Day of Democracy</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-101">[99]</a>

According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been eleven consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:2-102">[100]</a> as <a title="Populism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populism">populist</a> and <a title="Nationalism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism">nationalist</a> political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the <a title="Law and Justice" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_Justice">Law and Justice Party</a>) to the Philippines (under <a title="Rodrigo Duterte" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte">Rodrigo Duterte</a>).<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:2-102">[100]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:1-91">[89]</a>

In a Freedom House report released in 2018, Democracy Scores for most countries declined for the 12th consecutive year.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-VOANews-103">[101]</a> <a title="The Christian Science Monitor" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a> reported that <a class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist">nationalist</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Populist" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populist">populist</a> political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of <a title="Rule of law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law">rule of law</a>, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over objections from the <a title="European Union" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union">European Union</a>. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a <a title="2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt">failed coup attempt</a> during a <a title="2016–present purges in Turkey" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%E2%80%93present_purges_in_Turkey">government crackdown</a> .<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-104">[102]</a>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Measurement of democracy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Measurement of democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=10" data-section="10">Edit</a></h2>

<div class="thumbcaption">Country ratings from the <a class="mw-redirect" title="US" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/US">US</a> based <a title="Freedom House" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House">Freedom House's</a> Freedom in the World 2017 survey, concerning the state of world freedom in 2016<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-105">[103]</a><center>  Free (86)   Partly Free (59)   Not Free (50)</center></div>

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<div class="thumbcaption"><center>   Countries designated "<a title="Representative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy">electoral democracies</a>" in Freedom House's 2017 survey "Freedom in the World", covering the year 2016<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-FITW-TG-2015-106">[104]</a></center></div>

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Several <a class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom indices" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_indices">freedom indices</a> are published by several organisations according to their own various definitions of the term and relying on different types of data:<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-107">[105]</a>

<ul>

<li><a title="Freedom in the World" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World">Freedom in the World</a> published each year since 1972 by the U.S.-based <a title="Freedom House" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House">Freedom House</a> ranks countries by political rights and <a title="Civil liberties" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_liberties">civil liberties</a> that are derived in large measure from the <a title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. Countries are assessed as free, partly free, or unfree.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-FITW-TG-2015-106">[104]</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-redirect" title="Worldwide Press Freedom Index" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldwide_Press_Freedom_Index">Worldwide Press Freedom Index</a> is published each year since 2002 (except that 2011 was combined with 2012) by France-based <a title="Reporters Without Borders" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders">Reporters Without Borders</a>. Countries are assessed as having a good situation, a satisfactory situation, noticeable problems, a difficult situation, or a very serious situation.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-RWBPFIndex-108">[106]</a></li>

<li>The <a title="Index of Freedom in the World" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Freedom_in_the_World">Index of Freedom in the World</a> is an index measuring classical <a title="Civil liberties" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_liberties">civil liberties</a> published by Canada's <a title="Fraser Institute" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraser_Institute">Fraser Institute</a>, Germany's Liberales Institute, and the U.S. <a title="Cato Institute" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_Institute">Cato Institute</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-109">[107]</a> It is not currently included in the table below.</li>

<li>The <a title="CIRI Human Rights Data Project" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIRI_Human_Rights_Data_Project">CIRI Human Rights Data Project</a> measures a range of human, civil, women's and workers rights.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-110">[108]</a> It is now hosted by the <a title="University of Connecticut" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Connecticut">University of Connecticut</a>. It was created in 1994.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-111">[109]</a> In its 2011 report, the U.S. was ranked 38th in overall human rights.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-112">[110]</a></li>

<li>The <a title="Democracy Index" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index">Democracy Index</a>, published by the U.K.-based <a title="Economist Intelligence Unit" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit">Economist Intelligence Unit</a>, is an assessment of countries' democracy. Countries are rated to be either Full Democracies, Flawed Democracies, Hybrid Regimes, or Authoritarian regimes. Full democracies, flawed democracies, and hybrid regimes are considered to be democracies, and the authoritarian nations are considered to be dictatorial. The index is based on 60 indicators grouped in five different categories.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-DI-113">[111]</a></li>

<li>The U.S.-based <a title="Polity data series" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity_data_series">Polity data series</a> is a widely used data series in political science research. It contains coded annual information on regime authority characteristics and transitions for all independent states with greater than 500,000 total population and covers the years 1800–2006. Polity's conclusions about a state's level of democracy are based on an evaluation of that state's elections for competitiveness, openness and level of participation. Data from this series is not currently included in the table below. The Polity work is sponsored by the <a title="Political Instability Task Force" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Instability_Task_Force">Political Instability Task Force</a> (PITF) which is funded by the U.S. <a title="Central Intelligence Agency" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. However, the views expressed in the reports are the authors' alone and do not represent the views of the US Government.</li>

<li><a title="MaxRange" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/MaxRange">MaxRange</a>, a dataset defining level of democracy and institutional structure(regime-type) on a 100-graded scale where every value represents a unique regime type. Values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability. MaxRange defines the value corresponding to all states and every month from 1789 to 2015 and updating. MaxRange is created and developed by Max Range, and is now associated with the university of Halmstad, Sweden.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-114">[112]</a></li>

</ul>

Dieter Fuchs and Edeltraud Roller suggest that, in order to truly measure the quality of democracy, objective measurements need to be complemented by "subjective measurements based on the perspective of citizens".<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-115">[113]</a> Similarly, Quinton Mayne and Brigitte Geißel also defend that the quality of democracy does not depend exclusively on the performance of institutions, but also on the citizens' own dispositions and commitment.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-116">[114]</a>

<h3 class="in-block">Difficulties in measuring democracy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Difficulties in measuring democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=11" data-section="11">Edit</a></h3>

Because democracy is an overarching concept that includes the functioning of diverse institutions which are not easy to measure, strong limitations exist in quantifying and econometrically measuring the potential effects of democracy or its relationship with other phenomena—whether inequality, poverty, education etc.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Journal_of_Economic_Methodology-117">[115]</a> Given the constraints in acquiring reliable data with within-country variation on aspects of democracy, academics have largely studied cross-country variations. Yet variations between democratic institutions are very large across countries which constrains meaningful comparisons using statistical approaches. Since democracy is typically measured aggregately as a macro variable using a single observation for each country and each year, studying democracy faces a range of econometric constraints and is limited to basic correlations. Cross-country comparison of a composite, comprehensive and qualitative concept like democracy may thus not always be, for many purposes, methodologically rigorous or useful.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Journal_of_Economic_Methodology-117">[115]</a>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Types of governmental democracies<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Types of governmental democracies" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=12" data-section="12">Edit</a></h2>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Types of democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_democracy">Types of democracy</a></div>

Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-118">[116]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-119">[117]</a> However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the <a title="Separation of powers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers">separation of powers</a> in its own favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Barak40-120">[118]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-121">[119]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-122">[120]</a>

<div>World's states coloured by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Form of government" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_government">form of government</a>1</div>

<tbody>

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<td>

<tbody>

<tr>

<td width="50%">     Full <a title="Presidential system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_system">presidential republics</a>2</td>

<td width="50%">     <a title="Semi-presidential system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-presidential_system">Semi-presidential republics</a>2</td>

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<tr>

<td>     Parliamentary republics with an executive president<a title="Parliamentary system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system">dependent on the legislature</a></td>

<td>     <a title="Parliamentary system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system">Parliamentary republics</a>2</td>

</tr>

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<td>     <a title="Parliamentary system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system">Parliamentary</a> <a title="Constitutional monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy">constitutional monarchies</a></td>

<td>     Constitutional monarchies which have a separate head of government but where royalty still hold significant executive and/or legislative power</td>

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<td>     <a title="Absolute monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy">Absolute monarchies</a></td>

<td>     <a title="One-party state" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state">One-party states</a></td>

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<td>     Countries where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended (e.g. <a title="Military dictatorship" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_dictatorship">military dictatorships</a>)</td>

<td>     Countries which do not fit any of the above systems</td>

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</table>

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</table>

1This map was compiled according to the Wikipedia <a title="List of countries by system of government" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government">list of countries by system of government</a>. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are broadly described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This map presents only the <a title="De jure" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure">de jure</a> form of government, and not the <a title="De facto" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto">de facto</a> degree of democracy.</div>

</div>

The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system.

<h3 class="in-block">Basic forms<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Basic forms" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=13" data-section="13">Edit</a></h3>

Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a>, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-123">[121]</a> In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a <a title="Representative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy">representative democracy</a>.

<h4 class="in-block">Direct<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Direct" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=14" data-section="14">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="thumbcaption">A <a title="Landsgemeinde" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landsgemeinde">Landsgemeinde</a> (in 2009) of the <a title="Canton of Glarus" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Glarus">canton of Glarus</a>, an example of direct democracy in <a title="Switzerland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland">Switzerland</a></div>

</div>

<div class="thumbcaption">In <a title="Voting in Switzerland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_in_Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, without needing to register, every citizen receives <a class="mw-redirect" title="Ballot papers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballot_papers">ballot papers</a> and information brochures for each vote (and can send it back by post). Switzerland has a <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a> system and votes (and elections) are organised about four times a year; here, to <a title="Bern" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern#Politics">Berne</a>'s citizen in November 2008 about 5 national, 2 cantonal, 4 municipal referendums, and 2 elections (government and parliament of the City of Berne) to take care of at the same time.</div>

</div>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">Direct democracy</a></div>

Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The use of a lot system, a characteristic of <a title="Athenian democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy">Athenian democracy</a>, is unique to direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-124">[122]</a> A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to:

<ol>

<li>Change constitutional laws,</li>

<li>Put forth <a title="Initiative" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiative">initiatives</a>, <a title="Referendum" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum">referendums</a> and suggestions for laws,</li>

<li>Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise.</li>

</ol>

Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and <a title="Recall election" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_election">recall elections</a> are referred to as forms of direct democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-125">[123]</a> However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the <a title="Switzerland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland">Swiss</a> <a title="Cantons of Switzerland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland">cantons</a> of <a title="Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Appenzell_Innerrhoden">Appenzell Innerrhoden</a> and <a title="Canton of Glarus" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Glarus">Glarus</a>,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Golay-126">[124]</a> the <a title="Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_Zapatista_Autonomous_Municipalities">Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities</a>,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-127">[125]</a> communities affiliated with the <a class="mw-redirect" title="CIPO-RFM" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIPO-RFM">CIPO-RFM</a>,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-128">[126]</a> the <a title="Bolivia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia">Bolivian</a> city councils of <a title="Fejuve" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fejuve">FEJUVE</a>,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-129">[127]</a> and Kurdish cantons of <a title="Rojava" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava">Rojava</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-130">[128]</a>

<h4 class="in-block">Representative<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Representative" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=15" data-section="15">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Representative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy">Representative democracy</a></div>

Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also <a class="mw-redirect" title="Democratically-elected government" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratically-elected_government">democratically elected</a> then it is called a democratic <a title="Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic">republic</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-131">[129]</a> The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a <a title="Plurality (voting)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurality_(voting)">plurality</a> of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Golay-126">[124]</a>

Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or <a class="mw-redirect" title="Constituency" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituency">constituency</a>), or represent the entire electorate through <a title="Proportional representation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportional_representation">proportional</a> systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as <a title="Referendum" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum">referendums</a>. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-132">[130]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-133">[131]</a> pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-135">[133]</a>

<h5 class="in-block">Parliamentary<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Parliamentary" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=16" data-section="16">Edit</a></h5>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Parliamentary system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system">Parliamentary system</a></div>

Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by, or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-136">[134]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-137">[135]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-138">[136]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-139">[137]</a>

Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010-140">[138]</a> In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "loyal opposition". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or coalition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles.

<h5 class="in-block">Presidential<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Presidential" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=17" data-section="17">Edit</a></h5>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Presidential system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_system">Presidential system</a></div>

Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and aren't easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010-140">[138]</a>

The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily. This provides some measure of <a title="Separation of powers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers">separation of powers</a>. In consequence however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010-140">[138]</a>

A <a title="Semi-presidential system" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-presidential_system">semi-presidential system</a> is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010-140">[138]</a>

<h4 class="in-block">Hybrid or semi-direct<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Hybrid or semi-direct" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=18" data-section="18">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a title="Politics of Switzerland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Switzerland">Politics of Switzerland</a> and <a title="Voting in Switzerland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_in_Switzerland">Voting in Switzerland</a></div>

Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-141">[139]</a> semi-direct democracies or participatory democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some <a title="U.S. state" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state">U.S. states</a>, where frequent use is made of <a title="Referendum" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum">referendums</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Initiatives" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiatives">initiatives</a>.

The <a class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss confederation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_confederation">Swiss confederation</a> is a semi-direct democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Golay-126">[124]</a> At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution (<a class="mw-redirect" title="Federal popular initiative" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_popular_initiative">federal popular initiative</a>) or ask for a <a title="Optional referendum" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optional_referendum">referendum</a> to be held on any law voted by the <a title="Federal Assembly (Switzerland)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Assembly_(Switzerland)">parliament</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Golay-126">[124]</a> Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums).<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Golay-126">[124]</a>Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>]

In the <a title="United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>, no mechanisms of direct democracy exists at the federal level, but over half of the <a title="U.S. state" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state">states</a> and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called "ballot measures", "ballot questions" or "propositions"), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums. Examples include the extensive use of <a title="Referendum" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum">referendums</a> in the US state of <a title="California" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a>, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-142">[140]</a>

In <a title="New England" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England">New England</a>, <a title="Town meeting" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_meeting">Town meetings</a> are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a> and a state government which is representative. For example, most <a title="Vermont" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermont">Vermont</a> towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-143">[141]</a>

<h3 class="in-block">Variants<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Variants" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=19" data-section="19">Edit</a></h3>

<h4 class="in-block">Constitutional monarchy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Constitutional monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=20" data-section="20">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Constitutional monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</a></div>

<div class="thumbcaption">Queen <a title="Elizabeth II" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II">Elizabeth II</a>, a constitutional monarch</div>

</div>

Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, <a title="Scandinavia" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia">Scandinavian countries</a>, <a title="Thailand" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a title="Japan" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan">Japan</a> and <a title="Bhutan" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan">Bhutan</a> turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the <a title="Glorious Revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 and passage of the <a title="Bill of Rights 1689" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Kopstein2014-19">[19]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-refNARoP-55">[55]</a>

In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). An elected president, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries.

Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many nations. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British <a title="House of Lords" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords">House of Lords</a>) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the <a title="Australian Senate" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Senate">Australian Senate</a>).

<h4 class="in-block">Republic<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=21" data-section="21">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Republicanism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanism">Republicanism</a></div>

The term <a title="Republic" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic">republic</a> has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected <a title="Head of state" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_state">head of state</a>, such as a <a title="President (government title)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_(government_title)">president</a>, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary <a title="Monarch" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch">monarch</a> as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed <a title="Head of government" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government">head of government</a> such as a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister">prime minister</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-144">[142]</a>

The <a title="Founding Fathers of the United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a> rarely praised and often criticised democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a constitution enshrining basic rights; <a title="James Madison" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison">James Madison</a> argued, especially in <a title="Federalist No. 10" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_No._10">The FederalistNo. 10</a>, that what distinguished a direct democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.

What was critical to American values, <a title="John Adams" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams">John Adams</a> insisted,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-145">[143]</a> was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U.S. constitution, a woman asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-146">[144]</a>

<h4 class="in-block">Liberal democracy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Liberal democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=22" data-section="22">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Liberal democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_democracy">Liberal democracy</a></div>

A liberal democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the <a title="Rule of law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law">rule of law</a>, and moderated by a constitution or laws that emphasise the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see <a title="Civil liberties" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_liberties">civil liberties</a>).

In a liberal democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to <a title="Emergent democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergent_democracy">emerge</a> from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can "vote with their feet" or "vote with their dollars", resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many "powers" associated with formal government elsewhere.

<h4 class="in-block">Socialist<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Socialist" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=23" data-section="23">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a title="Democracy in Marxism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_in_Marxism">Democracy in Marxism</a></div>

<a title="Socialism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism">Socialist</a> thought has several different views on democracy. <a title="Social democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy">Social democracy</a>, <a title="Democratic socialism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_socialism">democratic socialism</a>, and the <a title="Dictatorship of the proletariat" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a>(usually exercised through <a title="Soviet democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_democracy">Soviet democracy</a>) are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of <a title="Participatory democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_democracy">participatory</a>, <a title="Industrial democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_democracy">industrial</a>, <a title="Economic democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_democracy">economic</a> and/or <a title="Workplace democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_democracy">workplace democracy</a> combined with a <a title="Representative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy">representative democracy</a>.

Within <a class="mw-redirect" title="Democracy in Marxist theory" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_in_Marxist_theory">Marxist orthodoxy</a> there is a hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which is simply referred to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralised nature. Because of orthodox Marxists' desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, <a title="Marxism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism">Marxists</a>, <a title="Leninism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninism">Leninists</a> and <a title="Trotskyism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyism">Trotskyists</a> believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Commune (Socialism)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commune(Socialism)">communes</a> (which are sometimes called <a title="Soviet (council)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet(council)">soviets</a>). This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy.

Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians.

<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a title="Che Guevara" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Che_Guevara">Che Guevara</a>, Speech, Uruguay, 1961<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-147">[145]</a></cite></div>

</blockquote>

<h4 class="in-block">Anarchist<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Anarchist" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=24" data-section="24">Edit</a></h4>

<a title="Anarchism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism">Anarchists</a> are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a <a title="Tyranny of the majority" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority">majority-rule is tyrannic or not</a>. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. <a title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-148">[146]</a> However, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communist" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-communist">anarcho-communist</a> <a title="Murray Bookchin" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Bookchin">Murray Bookchin</a> criticised <a class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist anarchists" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualist_anarchists">individualist anarchists</a> for opposing democracy,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-149">[147]</a> and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-150">[148]</a>

Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of <a title="Consensus democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_democracy">consensus democracy</a>, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-151">[149]</a> <a title="Henry David Thoreau" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a>, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for "a better government"<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-disobedience-152">[150]</a> and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent.

<h4 class="in-block">Sortition<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Sortition" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=25" data-section="25">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Sortition" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortition">Sortition</a></div>

Sometimes called "democracy without elections", <a title="Sortition" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortition">sortition</a> chooses decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official. The technique was in widespread use in <a class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian Democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_Democracy">Athenian Democracy</a> and <a title="Republic of Florence" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florence">Renaissance Florence</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Imprint_Academic-153">[151]</a> and is still used in modern <a title="Jury selection" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jury_selection">jury selection</a>.

<h4 class="in-block">Consociational<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Consociational" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=26" data-section="26">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" title="Consociational democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consociational_democracy">Consociational democracy</a></div>

A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them.

<h4 class="in-block">Consensus democracy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Consensus democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=27" data-section="27">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Consensus democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_democracy">Consensus democracy</a></div>

A consensus democracy, in contrast, would not be dichotomous. Instead, decisions would be based on a multi-option approach, and policies would be enacted if they gained sufficient support, either in a purely verbal agreement, or via a consensus vote—a multi-option preference vote. If the threshold of support were at a sufficiently high level, minorities would be as it were protected automatically. Furthermore, any voting would be ethno-colour blind.

<h4 class="in-block">Supranational<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Supranational" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=28" data-section="28">Edit</a></h4>

<a class="mw-redirect" title="Qualified majority voting" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualified_majority_voting">Qualified majority voting</a> is designed by the <a title="Treaty of Rome" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome">Treaty of Rome</a> to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the <a class="mw-redirect" title="European Council of Ministers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council_of_Ministers">European Council of Ministers</a>. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected.

<h4 class="in-block">Inclusive<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Inclusive" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=29" data-section="29">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" title="Inclusive democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_democracy">Inclusive democracy</a></div>

Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a> in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, <a title="Economic democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_democracy">economic democracy</a> in a <a title="Stateless society" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_society">stateless</a>, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. <a title="Workers' self-management" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers%27_self-management">self-management</a> in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher <a title="Takis Fotopoulos" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takis_Fotopoulos">Takis Fotopoulos</a> in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal <a title="Democracy & Nature" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_%26_Nature">Democracy & Nature</a> and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy.

The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i.e. the assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.

The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker. Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in principle, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates.

<h4 class="in-block">Participatory politics<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Participatory politics" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=30" data-section="30">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Participatory politics" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_politics">Participatory politics</a></div>

A <a class="mw-redirect" title="Parpolity" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parpolity">Parpolity</a> or Participatory Polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Parpolity" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parpolity">Nested Council</a> structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council.

A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the <a title="Tyranny of the majority" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority">tyranny of the majority</a>, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish, but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of most lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Participatory economy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_economy">participatory economy</a>.

<h4 class="in-block">Cosmopolitan<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Cosmopolitan" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=31" data-section="31">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Cosmopolitan democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmopolitan_democracy">Cosmopolitan democracy</a></div>

Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as Global democracy or World Federalism, is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-154">[152]</a>

According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing <a class="mw-redirect" title="International organisations" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_organisations">international organisations</a>, e.g. the <a title="United Nations" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations">United Nations</a>, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a <a class="mw-redirect" title="World Parliament" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Parliament">World Parliament</a>, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics.

Cosmopolitan Democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-155">[153]</a> writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist <a title="George Monbiot" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Monbiot">George Monbiot</a>, and professors <a title="David Held" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Held">David Held</a> and <a title="Daniele Archibugi" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi">Daniele Archibugi</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-156">[154]</a> The creation of the <a title="International Criminal Court" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court">International Criminal Court</a> in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy.

<h4 class="in-block">Creative democracy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Creative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=32" data-section="32">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" title="Creative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_democracy">Creative democracy</a></div>

Creative Democracy is advocated by American philosopher <a title="John Dewey" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey">John Dewey</a>. The main idea about Creative Democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us"<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-157">[155]</a> and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a <a title="Morality" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality">moral ideal</a> requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute".

<h4 class="in-block">Guided democracy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Guided democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=33" data-section="33">Edit</a></h4>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Guided democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_democracy">Guided democracy</a></div>

Guided democracy is a form of democracy which incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner which may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "Guided democracy."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-158">[156]</a> Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-159">[157]</a>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Non-governmental democracy<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Non-governmental democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=34" data-section="34">Edit</a></h2>

Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many <a class="mw-redirect" title="Non-governmental organisation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organisation">non-governmental organisations</a> decide policy and leadership by voting. Most <a title="Trade union" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union">trade unions</a> and <a title="Cooperative" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative">cooperatives</a> are governed by democratic elections. <a title="Corporation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation">Corporations</a> are controlled by <a title="Shareholder" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shareholder">shareholders</a> on the principle of <a title="One share, one vote" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_share,_one_vote">one share, one vote</a>—sometimes supplemented by <a title="Workplace democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_democracy">workplace democracy</a>. <a title="Amitai Etzioni" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amitai_Etzioni">Amitai Etzioni</a> has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sharia law" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia_law">sharia law</a>, termed islamocracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-160">[158]</a>[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>]

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Theory<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Theory" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=35" data-section="35">Edit</a></h2>

<div class="thumbcaption">A marble statue of <a title="Aristotle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a></div>

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<h3 class="in-block">Aristotle<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Aristotle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=36" data-section="36">Edit</a></h3>

<a title="Aristotle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> contrasted rule by the many (democracy/<a title="Timocracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timocracy">timocracy</a>), with rule by the few (<a title="Oligarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>/<a title="Aristocracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>), and with rule by a single person (<a class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny">tyranny</a> or today <a title="Autocracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracy">autocracy</a>/<a title="Absolute monarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy">absolute monarchy</a>). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy).<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-161">[159]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-162">[160]</a>

For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy can the citizens have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases.

But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, ... And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave.

<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a title="Aristotle" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a title="Politics (Aristotle)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)">Politics</a> 1317b (Book 6, Part II)</cite></div>

</blockquote>

<h3 class="in-block">Early Republican theory<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Early Republican theory" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=37" data-section="37">Edit</a></h3>

A common view among early and renaissance <a title="Republicanism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanism">Republican</a> theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:0-163">[161]</a>Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republic's shift to monarchism as it grew larger, these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and population inevitably led to tyranny.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:0-163">[161]</a> Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political units.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:0-163">[161]</a> <a title="Montesquieu" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> famously said, "if a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:0-163">[161]</a> <a title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau">Rousseau</a> asserted, "It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a despotic prince."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-:0-163">[161]</a>

<h3 class="in-block">Rationale<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Rationale" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=38" data-section="38">Edit</a></h3>

Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy: aggregative democracy, <a title="Deliberative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberative_democracy">deliberative democracy</a>, and <a title="Radical democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_democracy">radical democracy</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-164">[162]</a>

<h4 class="in-block">Aggregative<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Aggregative" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=39" data-section="39">Edit</a></h4>

The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens' preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on <a title="Voting" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting">voting</a>, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.

Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not "rule" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. <a title="Joseph Schumpeter" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-165">[163]</a> Contemporary proponents of minimalism include <a title="William H. Riker" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Riker">William H. Riker</a>, <a title="Adam Przeworski" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Przeworski">Adam Przeworski</a>, <a title="Richard Posner" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Posner">Richard Posner</a>.

According to the theory of <a title="Direct democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy">direct democracy</a>, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.

Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter—with half to their left and the other half to their right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. <a title="Anthony Downs" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Downs">Anthony Downs</a> suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-166">[164]</a>

<a title="Robert A. Dahl" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_A._Dahl">Robert A. Dahl</a> argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term <a title="Polyarchy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyarchy">polyarchy</a> to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open <a class="mw-redirect" title="Elections" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections">elections</a> which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-167">[165]</a> Similarly, <a title="Ronald Dworkin" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a> argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-168">[166]</a>

<h4 class="in-block">Deliberative<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Deliberative" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=40" data-section="40">Edit</a></h4>

<a title="Deliberative democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberative_democracy">Deliberative democracy</a> is based on the notion that democracy is government by <a title="Deliberation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberation">deliberation</a>. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-169">[167]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-170">[168]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-171">[169]</a> If the decision-makers cannot reach <a class="mw-redirect" title="Consensus" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus">consensus</a> after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule.

<h4 class="in-block">Radical<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Radical" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=41" data-section="41">Edit</a></h4>

<a title="Radical democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_democracy">Radical democracy</a> is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes.

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Criticism<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Criticism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=42" data-section="42">Edit</a></h2>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Criticism of democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_democracy">Criticism of democracy</a></div>

<div class="thumbcaption">Protests</div>

</div>

<h3 class="in-block">Inefficiencies<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Inefficiencies" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=43" data-section="43">Edit</a></h3>

Some economists have criticized the efficiency of democracy, citing the premise of the irrational voter, or a voter who makes decisions without all of the facts or necessary information in order to make a truly informed decision. Another argument is that democracy slows down processes because of the amount of input and participation needed in order to go forward with a decision. A common example often quoted to substantiate this point is the high economic development achieved by China (a non-democratic country) as compared to India (a democratic country). According to economists, the lack of democratic participation in countries like China allows for unfettered economic growth.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-172">[170]</a>

On the other hand, <a title="Socrates" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a> was of the belief that democracy without educated masses (educated in the more broader sense of being knowledgeable and responsible) would only lead to populism being the criteria to become an elected leader, and not competence. This would ultimately lead to a demise of the nation. This was quoted by Plato in book 10 of The Republic, in Socrates' conversation with Adimantus.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Republic-173">[171]</a> Socrates was of the opinion that the right to vote must not be an indiscriminate right (for example by birth or citizenship), but must be given only to people who thought sufficiently of their choice.

<h3 class="in-block">Popular rule as a façade<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Popular rule as a façade" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=44" data-section="44">Edit</a></h3>

The 20th-century Italian thinkers <a title="Vilfredo Pareto" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a> and <a title="Gaetano Mosca" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca">Gaetano Mosca</a> (independently) argued that democracy was illusory, and served only to mask the reality of elite rule. Indeed, they argued that elite oligarchy is the unbendable law of human nature, due largely to the apathy and division of the masses (as opposed to the drive, initiative and unity of the elites), and that democratic institutions would do no more than shift the exercise of power from oppression to manipulation.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-174">[172]</a> As <a title="Louis Brandeis" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a> once professed, "We may have democracy, or we may have <a title="Wealth" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth">wealth</a> concentrated in the hands of a few, but we can't have both."[<a title="Wikipedia:Please clarify" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify">clarification needed</a>].<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-175">[173]</a> British writer <a title="Ivo Mosley" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivo_Mosley">Ivo Mosley</a>, grandson of blackshirt <a title="Oswald Mosley" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Mosley">Oswald Mosley</a> describes in In the Name of the People: Pseudo-Democracy and the Spoiling of Our World, how and why current forms of electoral governance are destined to fall short of their promise.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-176">[174]</a>

<a title="Plato" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato">Plato</a>'s <a class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)">The Republic</a> presents a critical view of democracy through the narration of <a title="Socrates" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates">Socrates</a>: "Democracy, which is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and unequaled alike."<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-177">[175]</a> In his work, Plato lists <a title="Plato's five regimes" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_five_regimes">5 forms of government</a> from best to worst. Assuming that the Republic was intended to be a serious critique of the political thought in Athens, Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy led by the unwilling philosopher-kings (the wisest men), is a just form of government.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-178">[176]</a>

<a title="James Madison" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison">James Madison</a> critiqued direct democracy (which he referred to simply as "democracy") in <a title="Federalist No. 10" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_No.10">Federalist No. 10</a>, arguing that representative democracy—which he described using the term "republic"—is a preferable form of government, saying: "... democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths." Madison offered that republics were superior to democracies because republics safeguarded against <a title="Tyranny of the majority" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority">tyranny of the majority</a>, stating in <a title="Federalist No. 10" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_No.10">Federalist No. 10</a>: "the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic".

<h3 class="in-block">Political instability<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Political instability" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=46" data-section="46">Edit</a></h3>

More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the popular media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priorities.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-179">[177]</a>

This opportunist alliance not only has the handicap of having to cater to too many ideologically opposing factions, but it is usually short lived since any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or changes to leadership in the coalition partners themselves, can very easily result in the coalition partner withdrawing its support from the government.

Biased media has been accused of causing political instability, resulting in the obstruction of democracy, rather than its promotion.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-180">[178]</a>

<h3 class="in-block">Fraudulent elections<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Fraudulent elections" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=47" data-section="47">Edit</a></h3>

In representative democracies, it may not benefit incumbents to conduct fair elections. A study showed that incumbents who rig elections stay in office 2.5 times as long as those who permit fair elections.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-wp091108-181">[179]</a> Democracies in countries with high per capita income have been found to be less prone to violence, but in countries with low incomes the tendency is the reverse.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-wp091108-181">[179]</a> Election misconduct is more likely in countries with low per capita incomes, small populations, rich in natural resources, and a lack of institutional checks and balances. Sub-Saharan countries, as well as Afghanistan, all tend to fall into that category.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-wp091108-181">[179]</a>

Governments that have frequent elections tend to have significantly more stable economic policies than those governments who have infrequent elections. However, this trend does not apply to governments where fraudulent elections are common.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-wp091108-181">[179]</a>

<h3 class="in-block">Opposition<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Opposition" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=48" data-section="48">Edit</a></h3>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-democratic thought" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-democratic_thought">Anti-democratic thought</a></div>

Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government within a non-democratic state is typically brought about by <a title="Democratic revolution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_revolution">democratic revolution</a>.

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Development<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Development" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=49" data-section="49">Edit</a></h2>

<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a title="Democratization" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratization">Democratization</a></div>

<div class="thumbcaption">Banner in Hong Kong asking for democracy</div>

</div>

Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy.

Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-182">[180]</a> In a related theory, <a title="Ronald Inglehart" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Inglehart">Ronald Inglehart</a> suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on <a title="Self-expression values" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-expression_values">self-expression values</a>, which correlates closely with democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-183">[181]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-184">[182]</a>

Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that <a title="Democratic peace theory" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory">democracy causes peace</a>, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-185">[183]</a>

<a title="Carroll Quigley" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carroll_Quigley">Carroll Quigley</a> concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy:<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-186">[184]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-187">[185]</a> Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Quigley1983-38-188">[186]</a> By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments couldn't do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Quigley1983-38-188">[186]</a> Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Quigley1983-307-189">[187]</a>

Other theories stressed the relevance of <a title="Education" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education">education</a> and of <a title="Human capital" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_capital">human capital</a>—and within them of <a title="Intelligence" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence">cognitive ability</a> to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-190">[188]</a>[<a title="Wikipedia:Verifiability" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>]<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-191">[189]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-192">[190]</a>

<ul>

<li>a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing)</li>

<li>an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence.</li>

</ul>

Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged <a class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisation_theory">modernisation theory</a> by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-193">[191]</a> Neither is there convincing evidence that increased reliance on oil revenues prevents democratisation, despite a vast theoretical literature on "<a class="mw-redirect" title="The Resource Curse" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Resource_Curse">the Resource Curse</a>" that asserts that oil revenues sever the link between citizen taxation and government accountability, seen as the key to representative democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-194">[192]</a> The lack of evidence for these conventional theories of democratisation have led researchers to search for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-195">[193]</a><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-196">[194]</a> More inclusive <a title="Institution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution">institutions</a> lead to democracy because as people gain more power, they are able to demand more from the elites, who in turn have to concede more things to keep their position.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>] This virtuous circle may end up in democracy.

An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the <a title="Tsetse fly" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetse_fly">tsetse fly</a>—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plow the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-197">[195]</a> This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-198">[196]</a> Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others <a class="mw-redirect" title="Autocracies" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracies">autocracies</a>.

An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of <a title="Trade" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade">trade</a>.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-199">[197]</a> Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many[<a title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers">quantify</a>] places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-200">[198]</a>

In the 21st century, democracy has become such a popular method of reaching decisions that its application beyond politics to other areas such as entertainment, food and fashion, consumerism, urban planning, education, art, literature, science and theology has been criticised as "the reigning dogma of our time".<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-201">[199]</a> The argument suggests that applying a populist or market-driven approach to art and literature (for example), means that innovative creative work goes unpublished or unproduced. In education, the argument is that essential but more difficult studies are not undertaken. Science, as a <a title="Truth" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth">truth</a>-based discipline, is particularly corrupted by the idea that the correct conclusion can be arrived at by popular vote. However, more recently, theorists[<a class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words">which?</a>] have also advanced the concept <a title="Epistemic democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_democracy">epistemic democracy</a> to assert that democracy actually does a good job tracking the truth.

Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:

The peasant in the fable, when on his death-bed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Michels1915-202">[200]</a>

</blockquote>

Dr. <a title="Harald Wydra" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Wydra">Harald Wydra</a>, in his book Communism and The Emergence of Democracy (2007), maintains that the development of democracy should not be viewed as a purely procedural or as a static concept but rather as an ongoing "process of meaning formation".<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-203">[201]</a> Drawing on Claude Lefort's idea of the empty place of power, that "power emanates from the people [...] but is the power of nobody", he remarks that democracy is reverence to a symbolic mythical authority—as in reality, there is no such thing as the people or demos. Democratic political figures are not supreme rulers but rather temporary guardians of an empty place. Any claim to substance such as the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Collective good" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_good">collective good</a>, the <a title="Public interest" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_interest">public interest</a> or the will of the nation is subject to the competitive struggle and times of for[<a title="Wikipedia:Please clarify" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify">clarification needed</a>] gaining the authority of office and government. The essence of the democratic system is an empty place, void of real people, which can only be temporarily filled and never be appropriated. The seat of power is there, but remains open to constant change. As such, people's definitions of "democracy" or of "democratic" progress throughout history as a continual and potentially never ending process of social construction.<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-204">[202]</a>

</div>

<ul>

<li><a title="Consent of the governed" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed">Consent of the governed</a></li>

<li><a title="Constitutional liberalism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_liberalism">Constitutional liberalism</a></li>

<li><a title="Democracy Index" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index">Democracy Index</a></li>

<li><a title="Democracy Ranking" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Ranking">Democracy Ranking</a></li>

<li><a title="Democratic peace theory" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory">Democratic peace theory</a></li>

<li><a title="Democratization" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratization">Democratization</a></li>

<li><a title="E-democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-democracy">E-democracy</a></li>

<li><a title="Empowered democracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowered_democracy">Empowered democracy</a></li>

<li><a title="Foucault–Habermas debate" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault%E2%80%93Habermas_debate">Foucault–Habermas debate</a></li>

<li><a title="Good governance" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_governance">Good governance</a></li>

<li><a title="Parliament in the Making" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_in_the_Making">Parliament in the Making</a></li>

<li><a title="Shadow government (conspiracy)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_government_(conspiracy)">Shadow government (conspiracy)</a></li>

<li><a title="Spatial citizenship" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li>

<li><a title="Statism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statism">Statism</a></li>

</ul>

</div>

<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Footnotes<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Footnotes" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=51" data-section="51">Edit</a></h2>

<li id="cite_note-Fatherland-77"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Fatherland_77-0">^{</a> }Piotr Machnikowski renders the Polish "Ojczyzna" as "<a class="mw-redirect" title="Fatherland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatherland">Fatherland</a>".<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Machnikowski2010-75">[75]</a> The "<a title="Literal translation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation">literal</a>" English translation of "ojczyzna" is indeed "<a class="mw-redirect" title="Fatherland" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatherland">fatherland</a>": both these words are <a title="Calque" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calque">calques</a> of the <a title="Latin" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin">Latin</a> "patria," which itself derives from the Latin "pater" ("father"). <a class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution of 3 May 1791" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791">The English translation of the Constitution of 3 May 1791, by Christopher Kasparek</a>, reproduced in <a title="Wikisource" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource">Wikisource</a> (e.g. at the end of section II, <a class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution of 3 May 1791" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791#II._The_Landed_Nobility">"The Landed Nobility"</a>) renders "ojczyzna" as "country", which is the usual English-language <a title="Translation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Equivalence">equivalent</a> of the expression. In this particular context, "Homeland" may be the most natural rendering.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Constitution-80"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Constitution_80-0">^{</a> }The claims of "first" and "second constitution" have been disputed. The U.S. and Polish-Lithuanian constitutions had been preceded by earlier documents that had not introduced the clear division of executive, legislative, and judiciary powers advocated by <a title="Age of Enlightenment" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thinkers such as <a title="Montesquieu" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>. According to Koenigsberger,<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-Koenigsberger1986-78">[77]</a> the <a title="Corsican Constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsican_Constitution">Corsican Constitution</a> of 1755<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_note-dd-79">[78]</a> had not separated the executive from the judiciary. See <a class="mw-redirect" title="History of the constitution" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_constitution">history of the constitution</a>.</li>

</ol>

</div>

<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">References<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: References" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=52" data-section="52">Edit</a></h2>

<li id="cite_note-1"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-1">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/democracy" rel="nofollow">"Definition of DEMOCRACY"</a>. www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 5 July 2018.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-2">^{</a> }Locke, John. Two Treatises on Government: a Translation into Modern English. Quote:"There is no practical alternative to majority political rule – i.e., to taking the consent of the majority as the act of the whole and binding every individual. It would be next to impossible to obtain the consent of every individual before acting collectively ... No rational people could desire and constitute a society that had to dissolve straightaway because the majority was unable to make the final decision and the society was incapable of acting as one body."<a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_4BGe7-pFIC&pg=PR9&lpg=PR9&dq=%E2%80%9CThere+is+no+practical+alternative+to+majority+political+rule+%E2%80%93+i.e.,+to+taking+the+consent+of+the+majority+as+the+act+of+the+whole+and+binding+every+individual.%22#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%9CThere%20is%20no%20practical%20alternative%20to%20majority%20political%20rule%20%E2%80%93%20i.e.%2C%20to%20taking%20the%20consent%20of%20the%20majority%20as%20the%20act%20of%20the%20whole%20and%20binding%20every%20individual.%22&f=false" rel="nofollow">Google Books</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-3">^{</a> }<a title="Oxford English Dictionary" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>: "democracy".</li>

<li id="cite_note-britannica-4"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-britannica_4-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Watkins, Frederick (1970). "Democracy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (Expo '70 hardcover ed.). William Benton. pp. 215–23. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-135-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-135-1"><bdi>978-0-85229-135-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-5">^{</a> }<a class="mw-redirect" title="R. R. Palmer" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.R.Palmer">R. R. Palmer</a>, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800 (1959)</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-6">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Przeworski, Adam (1991). Democracy and the Market. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–14.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-7">^{</a> }Diamond, L., Lecture at Hilla University for Humanistic Studies 21 January 2004: <a class="external text" href="http://web.stanford.edu/_{ldiamond/iraq/WhaIsDemocracy012004.htm}" rel="nofollow">"What is Democracy"</a>; Diamond, L. and Morlino, L., The quality of democracy (2016). In Diamond, L., In Search of Democracy. London: Routledge. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-78128-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-78128-2">978-0-415-78128-2</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-8">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Landman, Todd (2018). "Democracy and Human Rights: Concepts, Measures, and Relationships". Politics and Governance. 6 (1): 48. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i1.1186" rel="nofollow">10.17645/pag.v6i1.1186</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-9">^{</a> }Wilson, N.G. (2006). Encyclopedia of ancient Greece. New York: Routledge. p. 511. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-415-97334-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-97334-1">0-415-97334-1</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-10">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Barker, Ernest (1906). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1HUrAAAAYAAJ" rel="nofollow">The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle</a>. Chapter VII, Section 2: G.P. Putnam's Sons.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-11">^{</a> }Jarvie, 2006, pp. 218–19</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-12">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180218214151/http://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Democracy_Index_2017.pdf?mkt_tok=eyJpIjoiWkRKbU1HWmxNVEUwTW1FdyIsInQiOiJPdlltVFV0blFRQzZNVERCZHhVeitZRElmUGplOHh3NWs1d2wzVzdRS1JvNU1kVmUxQVRESU9LbEVSOVwvR1F4aG1PV1NlS0ZZcng4NzBcLzVNZ09JOUxiZU5TTEVPekVHayttOTRqQkQ5TkNzWGNtRlowQTZ0UzlUK0pDdm9PVGlcLyJ9" rel="nofollow">"Democracy Index 2017 – Economist Intelligence Unit"</a>(PDF). EIU.com. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Democracy_Index_2017.pdf?mkt_tok=eyJpIjoiWkRKbU1HWmxNVEUwTW1FdyIsInQiOiJPdlltVFV0blFRQzZNVERCZHhVeitZRElmUGplOHh3NWs1d2wzVzdRS1JvNU1kVmUxQVRESU9LbEVSOVwvR1F4aG1PV1NlS0ZZcng4NzBcLzVNZ09JOUxiZU5TTEVPekVHayttOTRqQkQ5TkNzWGNtRlowQTZ0UzlUK0pDdm9PVGlcLyJ9" rel="nofollow">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-13">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news">Staff writer (22 August 2007). <a class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/markets/rankings/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8908438" rel="nofollow">"Liberty and justice for some"</a>. <a title="The Economist" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist">The Economist</a>. <a title="Economist Group" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Group">Economist Group</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-14">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFO'Donnell2005" class="citation">O'Donnell, Guillermo (2005), "Why the rule of law matters", in Diamond, Larry; Morlino, Leonardo (eds.), Assessing the quality of democracy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 3–17, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8287-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8287-6"><bdi>978-0-8018-8287-6</bdi></a>.</cite> <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-eXJMXnraPQC&pg=PA3" rel="nofollow">Preview.</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-BKMIT-15"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-BKMIT_15-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Dahl, Robert A.; Shapiro, Ian; Cheibub, José Antônio (2003). The democracy sourcebook. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54147-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54147-3"><bdi>978-0-262-54147-3</bdi></a>.</cite> <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B8THIuSkiqgC" rel="nofollow">Details.</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-BKHenaff-16"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-BKHenaff_16-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Hénaff, Marcel; Strong, Tracy B. (2001). Public space and democracy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-3388-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-3388-3"><bdi>978-0-8166-3388-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-17">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFKimber1989" class="citation journal">Kimber, Richard (September 1989). "On democracy". <a title="Scandinavian Political Studies" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_Political_Studies">Scandinavian Political Studies</a>. 12 (3): 201, 199–219. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9477.1989.tb00090.x" rel="nofollow">10.1111/j.1467-9477.1989.tb00090.x</a>.</cite> <a class="external text" href="https://tidsskrift.dk/index.php/scandinavian_political_studies/article/view/13057/24875" rel="nofollow">Full text.</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-18">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news">Scruton, Roger (9 August 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23607302" rel="nofollow">"A Point of View: Is democracy overrated?"</a>. <a title="BBC News" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News">BBC News</a>. <a title="BBC" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC">BBC</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Kopstein2014-19">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Kopstein2014_19-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Kopstein2014_19-1">b</a> <cite class="citation book">Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark; Hanson, Stephen E., eds. (2014). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=L2jwAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38#v=onepage" rel="nofollow">Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order</a> (4, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–39. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-99138-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-99138-4"><bdi>978-1-139-99138-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-20">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/sovereignty/" rel="nofollow">"Parliamentary sovereignty"</a>. UK Parliament. Retrieved 18 August 2014</cite>; <cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/about-the-judiciary/the-judiciary-the-government-and-the-constitution/jud-acc-ind/independence/" rel="nofollow">"Independence"</a>. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. Retrieved 9 November 2014.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-21">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news">Daily Express News (2 August 2013). <a class="external text" href="http://newindianexpress.com/nation/All-party-meet-vows-to-uphold-Parliament-supremacy/2013/08/02/article1713808.ece" rel="nofollow">"All-party meet vows to uphold Parliament supremacy"</a>. <a title="The New Indian Express" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Indian_Express">The New Indian Express</a>. Express Publications (Madurai) Limited. Retrieved 18 August2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Barak27-22"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Barak27_22-0">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFBarak2006" class="citation">Barak, Aharon (2006), "Protecting the constitution and democracy", in Barak, Aharon (ed.), The judge in a democracy, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 27, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12017-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12017-1"><bdi>978-0-691-12017-1</bdi></a>.</cite> <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC&pg=PA27" rel="nofollow">Preview.</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-23">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFKelsen1955" class="citation journal">Kelsen, Hans (October 1955). "Foundations of democracy". Ethics. 66 (1): 1–101. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F291036" rel="nofollow">10.1086/291036</a>. <a title="JSTOR" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2378551" rel="nofollow">2378551</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-24">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book"><a title="Martha Nussbaum" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum">Nussbaum, Martha</a> (2000). Women and human development: the capabilities approach. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00385-8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00385-8"><bdi>978-0-521-00385-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-JHUPress-25"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-JHUPress_25-0">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFSnyderSamuels2006" class="citation">Snyder, Richard; Samuels, David (2006), "Devaluing the vote in Latin America", in Diamond, Larry; Plattner, Marc F. (eds.), Electoral systems and democracy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 168, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8475-7" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8475-7"><bdi>978-0-8018-8475-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-26">^{</a> }Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, Bk. II, ch. 2–3.</li>

<li id="cite_note-William_R.Everdell_2000-27"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-William_R.Everdell_2000_27-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Everdell, William R. (2000) [1983]. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/endofkingshistor00ever" rel="nofollow">The end of kings: a history of republics and republicans</a> (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-22482-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-22482-4"><bdi>978-0-226-22482-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-28">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.the-athenaeum.org/art/detail.php?ID=131618" rel="nofollow">"Pericles' Funeral Oration"</a>. the-athenaeum.org.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-BKDunn1992-29"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-BKDunn1992_29-0">^{</a> }John Dunn, Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BC – 1993 AD, Oxford University Press, 1994, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-19-827934-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-827934-5">0-19-827934-5</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaaflaubOberWallace2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template"style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-30" style="margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: inherit; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; vertical-align: baseline; background: none;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaaflaubOberWallace2007%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2014%5D%5D%3Csup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22%3E&#91;%3Ci%3E%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C%3Cspan_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2014)%22%3Epage&nbsp;needed%3C/span%3E%5D%5D%3C/i%3E&#93;%3C/sup%3E_30-0">^{</a> }<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#CITEREFRaaflaubOberWallace2007">Raaflaub, Ober & Wallace 2007</a>, p. [<a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">page needed</a>].</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-31">^{</a> }<cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=democracy" rel="nofollow">"Democracy"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-32">^{</a> }R. Po-chia Hsia, Lynn Hunt, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, and Bonnie G. Smith, The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, A Concise History, Volume I: To 1740(Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007), 44.</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-33">^{</a> }Aristotle Book 6</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-34">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Grinin, Leonid E. (2004). <a class="external text" href="http://www.socionauki.ru/book/early_state_en/" rel="nofollow">The Early State, Its Alternatives and Analogues</a>. Uchitel' Publishing House.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-35">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/article_women_and_family?page=4" rel="nofollow">"Women and Family in Athenian Law"</a>. www.stoa.org. Retrieved 1 March 2018.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-SLape2009-36"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-SLape2009_36-0">^{</a> }Susan Lape, Reproducing Athens: Menander's Comedy, Democratic Culture, and the Hellenistic City, Princeton University Press, 2009, p. 4, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/1-4008-2591-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4008-2591-1">1-4008-2591-1</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaaflaubOberWallace20075-37"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaaflaubOberWallace20075_37-0">^{</a> }<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#CITEREFRaaflaubOberWallace2007">Raaflaub, Ober & Wallace 2007</a>, p. 5.</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberHedrick1996107-38"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberHedrick1996107_38-0">^{</a> }<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#CITEREFOberHedrick1996">Ober & Hedrick 1996</a>, p. 107.</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-39">^{</a> }Clarke, 2001, pp. 194–201</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-40">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://rangevoting.org/SpartaBury.html" rel="nofollow">"Full historical description of the Spartan government"</a>. Rangevoting.org. Retrieved 28 September 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-41">^{</a> }Terrence A. Boring, Literacy in Ancient Sparta, Leiden Netherlands (1979). <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/90-04-05971-7" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-05971-7">90-04-05971-7</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-42">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://annourbis.com/Ancient-Rome/8rome10.html" rel="nofollow">"Ancient Rome from the earliest times down to 476 A.D"</a>. Annourbis.com. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-44">^{</a> }<a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#CITEREFWatson2005">Watson 2005</a>, p. 271</li>

<li id="cite_note-The_Hindu-45"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-The_Hindu_45-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/07/11/stories/2008071151250300.htm" rel="nofollow">"Constitution 1,000 years ago"</a>. The Hindu. Chennai, India. 11 July 2008.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-46">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/magna-carta-an-introduction" rel="nofollow">"Magna Carta: an introduction"</a>. The British Library. Retrieved 28 January 2015. <q>Magna Carta is sometimes regarded as the foundation of democracy in England. ...Revised versions of Magna Carta were issued by King Henry III (in 1216, 1217 and 1225), and the text of the 1225 version was entered onto the statute roll in 1297. ...The 1225 version of Magna Carta had been granted explicitly in return for a payment of tax by the whole kingdom, and this paved the way for the first summons of Parliament in 1265, to approve the granting of taxation.</q></cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-47">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/citizen_subject/making_history_citizen.htm" rel="nofollow">"Citizen or Subject?"</a>. The National Archives. Retrieved 17 November 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-48">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Jobson, Adrian (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=9gHWamp-TLoC&pg=PA174#v=onepage" rel="nofollow">The First English Revolution: Simon de Montfort, Henry III and the Barons' War</a>. Bloomsbury. pp. 173–74. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-226-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-226-5"><bdi>978-1-84725-226-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-49">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-30849472" rel="nofollow">"Simon de Montfort: The turning point for democracy that gets overlooked"</a>. BBC. 19 January 2015. Retrieved 19 January2015</cite>; <cite class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/11355822/The-January-Parliament-and-how-it-defined-Britain.html" rel="nofollow">"The January Parliament and how it defined Britain"</a>. The Telegraph. 20 January 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-50">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/citizen_subject/origins.htm" rel="nofollow">"Origins and growth of Parliament"</a>. The National Archives. Retrieved 17 November 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-51">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/videos/from-legal-document-to-public-myth-magna-carta-in-the-17th-century" rel="nofollow">"From legal document to public myth: Magna Carta in the 17th century"</a>. The British Library. Retrieved 16 October 2017</cite>; <cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sal.org.uk/events/2015/06/magna-carta-magna-carta-in-the-17th-century/" rel="nofollow">"Magna Carta: Magna Carta in the 17th Century"</a>. The Society of Antiquaries of London. Retrieved 16 October 2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-52">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/citizen_subject/origins.htm" rel="nofollow">"Origins and growth of Parliament"</a>. The National Archives. Retrieved 7 April 2015.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-53">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/citizenship2.htm" rel="nofollow">"Rise of Parliament"</a>. The National Archives. Retrieved 7 April 2015.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-54">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/taking-liberties/articles/putney-debates" rel="nofollow">"Putney debates"</a>. The British Library. Retrieved 22 December 2016.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-refNARoP-55">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-refNARoP_55-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-refNARoP_55-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution" rel="nofollow">"Britain's unwritten constitution"</a>. British Library. Retrieved 27 November 2015. <q>The key landmark is the Bill of Rights (1689), which established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown.... The Bill of Rights (1689) then settled the primacy of Parliament over the monarch’s prerogatives, providing for the regular meeting of Parliament, free elections to the Commons, free speech in parliamentary debates, and some basic human rights, most famously freedom from ‘cruel or unusual punishment’.</q></cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-refIIP-56"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-refIIP_56-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141024130317/http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/DOCS/Demopaper/dmpaper2.html" rel="nofollow">"Constitutionalism: America & Beyond"</a>. Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department of State. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/DOCS/Demopaper/dmpaper2.html" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014. <q>The earliest, and perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in England. The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th, and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law (although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages. What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects.... However, as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The "rights of man" enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.</q></cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-57">^{</a> }<a title="Alexis de Tocqueville" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville">Tocqueville, Alexis de</a> (2003). <a title="Democracy in America" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_in_America">Democracy in America</a>. Barnes & Noble. pp. 11, 18–19. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-7607-5230-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7607-5230-3">0-7607-5230-3</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-58">^{</a> }<a title="Allen Weinstein" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Weinstein">Allen Weinstein</a> and David Rubel (2002), The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower, DK Publishing, Inc., New York, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-7894-8903-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7894-8903-1">0-7894-8903-1</a>, p. 61</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-59">^{</a> }Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the <a title="United States" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 63–65, 74–75, 102–05, 114–15</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-60">^{</a> }Christopher Fennell (1998), <a class="external text" href="http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html" rel="nofollow">Plymouth Colony Legal Structure</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-61">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/citizenship2.htm" rel="nofollow">"Citizenship 1625–1789"</a>. The National Archives. Retrieved 17 November 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-62">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/struggle_democracy/getting_vote.htm" rel="nofollow">"Getting the vote"</a>. The National Archives. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-63">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Gregory, Desmond (1985). The ungovernable rock: a history of the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom and its role in Britain's Mediterranean strategy during the Revolutionary War, 1793–1797. London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 31. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3225-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3225-3"><bdi>978-0-8386-3225-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-64">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal"><a class="external text" href="http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/spring07/elections.cfm" rel="nofollow">"Voting in Early America"</a>. Colonial Williamsburg. Spring 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2015.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-65">^{</a> }Ray Allen Billington, America's Frontier Heritage (1974) 117–58. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-0310-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-0310-2">0-8263-0310-2</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-66">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Johnston, Douglas M.; Reisman, W. Michael (2008). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=dVuwCQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA544&pg=PA544#v=onepage" rel="nofollow">The Historical Foundations of World Order</a>. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 544. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2393-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2393-5"><bdi>978-90-474-2393-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-67">^{</a> }Jacqueline Newmyer, <a class="external text" href="http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/2-2/2-2-6.htm" rel="nofollow">"Present from the start: John Adams and America"</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131126084704/http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/2-2/2-2-6.htm" rel="nofollow">Archived</a> 26 November 2013 at the <a title="Wayback Machine" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Oxonian Review of Books, 2005, vol 4 issue 2</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-68">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Ratcliffe, Donald (Summer 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://jer.pennpress.org/media/26167/sampleArt22.pdf" rel="nofollow">"The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787-1828"</a> (PDF). Journal of the Early Republic. 33: 231.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-69">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Ratcliffe, Donald (Summer 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://jer.pennpress.org/media/26167/sampleArt22.pdf" rel="nofollow">"The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787-1828"</a> (PDF). Journal of the Early Republic. 33: 225–229.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-70">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Dinkin, Robert (1982). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/votinginrevoluti00dink" rel="nofollow">Voting in Revolutionary America: A Study of Elections in the Original Thirteen States, 1776-1789</a>. USA: Greenwood Publishing. pp. 37–42. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0313230912" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313230912"><bdi>978-0313230912</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-71">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/bill-rights-brief-history" rel="nofollow">"The Bill Of Rights: A Brief History"</a>. ACLU. Retrieved 21 April 2015.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-72">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFDeacy2008" class="citation book"><a title="Susan Deacy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Deacy">Deacy, Susan</a> (2008). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=kIiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163&dq=Athena+and+Ares+Darmon#v=onepage&q=Athena%20and%20Ares%20Darmon" rel="nofollow">Athena</a>. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 145–49. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30066-7" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30066-7"><bdi>978-0-415-30066-7</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Davies1992-73">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Davies1992_73-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Davies1992_73-1">b</a> <cite class="citation book"><a title="Norman Davies" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Davies">Norman Davies</a> (15 May 1991). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190905232450/https://ces.fas.harvard.edu/uploads/files/Working-Papers-Archives/CEE_24.pdf" rel="nofollow">The Third of May 1791</a>(PDF). Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies, Harvard University. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://ces.fas.harvard.edu/uploads/files/Working-Papers-Archives/CEE_24.pdf" rel="nofollow">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 September 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2019.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-74"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-74">^{</a> }(<a title="Polish language" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language">Polish</a>: Konstytucja 3 maja, <a title="Belarusian language" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_language">Belarusian</a>: Канстытуцыя 3 мая (official) / 3 траўня (<a title="Tara&scaron;kievica" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara%C5%A1kievica">Tara&scaron;kievica</a>), <a title="Lithuanian language" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language">Lithuanian</a>: Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija <a class="internal" title="Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija.ogg" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/60/Gegu%C5%BE%C4%97s_tre%C4%8Diosios_konstitucija.ogg">listen</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help">help</a>·<a title="File:Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija.ogg" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gegu%C5%BE%C4%97s_tre%C4%8Diosios_konstitucija.ogg">info</a>))</li>

<li id="cite_note-Machnikowski2010-75">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Machnikowski2010_75-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Machnikowski2010_75-1">b</a> <cite class="citation book">Piotr Machnikowski (1 December 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=OI2WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT36&lpg=PT36&dq=google+books+Contract+Law+Poland+Machnikowski#v=onepage&q=google%20books%20Contract%20Law%20Poland%20Machnikowski&f=false" rel="nofollow">Contract Law in Poland</a>. Kluwer Law International. p. 20. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-3396-0" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-3396-0"><bdi>978-90-411-3396-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 July 2011.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Ligeza2017-76">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Ligeza2017_76-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Ligeza2017_76-1">b</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Ligeza2017_76-2">c</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Ligeza2017_76-3">d</a> <cite class="citation book">Jan Ligeza (2017). Preambuła Prawa [The Preamble of Law] (in Polish). Polish Scientific Publishers PWN. p. 12. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-83-945455-0-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-945455-0-5"><bdi>978-83-945455-0-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Koenigsberger1986-78"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Koenigsberger1986_78-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">H. G. Koenigsberger (1986). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=t-H57HJTGfEC&pg=PR6&dq=Politicians+and+Virtuosi:+Essays+on+Early+Modern+History#v=onepage&q=Politicians%20and%20Virtuosi%3A%20Essays%20on%20Early%20Modern%20History&f=false" rel="nofollow">Politicians and Virtuosi: Essays on Early Modern History (Vol. 49)</a>. A&C Black. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-90-762865-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-90-762865-1"><bdi>978-0-90-762865-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 10 December 2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-dd-79"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-dd_79-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Dorothy Carrington (July 1973). "The Corsican constitution of Pasquale Paoli (1755–1769)". The English Historical Review. 88(348): 481–503. <a title="JSTOR" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/564654" rel="nofollow">564654</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-81">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080827213104/http://mars.wnec.edu/_{grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/rev892.html}" rel="nofollow">"The French Revolution II"</a>. Mars.wnec.edu. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://mars.wnec.edu/_{grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/rev892.html}" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Denning2004-82"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Denning2004_82-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Michael Denning (2004). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GAoWojy41BkC&pg=PA212" rel="nofollow">Culture in the Age of Three Worlds</a>. Verso. p. 212. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-449-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-449-6"><bdi>978-1-85984-449-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 10 July 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Lovejoy-83"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Lovejoy_83-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in slavery: a history of slavery in Africa (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 290. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78012-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78012-4"><bdi>978-0-521-78012-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-84">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web">French National Assembly. <a class="external text" href="http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/suffrage_universel/suffrage-1848.asp" rel="nofollow">"1848 " Désormais le bulletin de vote doit remplacer le fusil ""</a>. Retrieved 26 September 2009.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-85">^{</a> }"<a class="external text" href="http://www.iun.edu/_{hisdcl/h114_2002/democracy.htm}" rel="nofollow">Movement toward greater democracy in Europe</a>". Indiana University Northwest.</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-86">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714073725/http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/manassas/social/introsoc.htm" rel="nofollow">"Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War"</a>. Itd.nps.gov. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/manassas/social/introsoc.htm" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-87"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-87">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=100&page=transcript" rel="nofollow">Transcript of Voting Rights Act (1965)</a> U.S. National Archives.</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-88">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,897070,00.html" rel="nofollow">The Constitution: The 24th Amendment</a> Time.</li>

<li id="cite_note-HK-89"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-HK_89-0">^{</a> }Hasan Kayalı (1995) <a class="external text" href="http://psi203.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Kayali,%20Elections%20in%20the%20Ott%20Empire%20(1995).pdf" rel="nofollow">"Elections and the Electoral Process in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1919"</a> International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 265–286</li>

<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-90">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news">Diamond, Larry (15 September 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/09/13/opinion/larry-diamond-democracy-in-recession-timeline.html" rel="nofollow">"Timeline: Democracy in Recession"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 25 January2016.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-91">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:1_91-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:1_91-1">b</a> <cite class="citation news">Kurlantzick, Joshua (11 May 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-05-11/mini-trumps-are-running-for-election-all-over-the-world" rel="nofollow">"Mini-Trumps Are Running for Election All Over the World"</a>. Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 16 May 2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-92">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Mounk, Yascha (January 2017). <a class="external text" href="http://www.journalofdemocracy.org/authoreditor/yascha-mounk" rel="nofollow">"The Signs of Deconsolidation"</a>. Journal of Democracy. Retrieved 16 May2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-93">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060907220746/http://www.snl.depaul.edu/contents/current/syllabi/HC_314.doc" rel="nofollow">"Age of Dictators: Totalitarianism in the inter-war period"</a>. Archived from the original on 7 September 2006. Retrieved 7 September 2006.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-94">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?a=599" rel="nofollow">"Did the United States Create Democracy in Germany?: The Independent Review: The Independent Institute"</a>. Independent.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-95">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm" rel="nofollow">"World | South Asia | Country profiles | Country profile: India"</a>. BBC News. 7 June 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-96">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Julian Go (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&lpg=PA93&pg=PA94#v=onepage" rel="nofollow">"A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000"</a>. In Arjomand, Saïd Amir (ed.). Constitutionalism and political reconstruction. Brill. pp. 92–94. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15174-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15174-1"><bdi>978-90-04-15174-1</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-97">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world" rel="nofollow">"How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World"</a>. University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-98">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090713213025/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=368&year=2007" rel="nofollow">"Tables and Charts"</a>. Freedomhouse.org. 10 May 2004. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=368&year=2007" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 13 July 2009. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-99">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="http://www.fordemocracy.net/electoral.shtml" rel="nofollow">List of Electoral Democracies</a> fordemocracy.net[<a title="Wikipedia:Link rot" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot">dead link</a>]</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-100">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Wall, John (October 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://johnwall.camden.rutgers.edu/files/2014/10/Democratising-Democracy-The-Road-from-Womens-to-Childrens-Suffrage1.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Democratising democracy: the road from women's to children's suffrage"</a> (PDF). The International Journal of Human Rights. 18:6: 646–59 – via Rutgers University.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-101">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ga10655.doc.htm" rel="nofollow">"General Assembly declares 15 September International Day of Democracy; Also elects 18 Members to Economic and Social Council"</a>. Un.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-102">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:2_102-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:2_102-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2017" rel="nofollow">"Freedom in the Word 2017"</a>. freedomhouse.org. 2016. Retrieved 16 May 2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-VOANews-103"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-VOANews_103-0">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/freedom-house-reports-decrease-in-democratic-principles/4209557.html" rel="nofollow">"Freedom House: Democracy Scores for Most Countries Decline for 12th Consecutive Year"</a>, VOA News, 16 January 2018. Retrieved 21 January 2018.</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-104">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/World/2018/1113/As-populism-rises-fragile-democracies-move-to-weaken-their-courts" rel="nofollow">"As populism rises, fragile democracies move to weaken their courts"</a>. Christian Science Monitor. 13 November 2018. <a title="International Standard Serial Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0882-7729" rel="nofollow">0882-7729</a>. Retrieved 14 November 2018.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-105">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FIW_2017_Report_Final.pdf" rel="nofollow">Freedom in The World 2017 – Populists and Autocrats: The Dual Threat to Global Democracy</a> by <a title="Freedom House" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House">Freedom House</a>, 31 January 2017</li>

<li id="cite_note-FITW-TG-2015-106">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-FITW-TG-2015_106-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-FITW-TG-2015_106-1">b</a> <a class="external text" href="https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FIW_2017_Report_Final.pdf" rel="nofollow">Freedom in The World 2017 report (</a><a class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Document_Format">PDF</a>)</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-107">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Skaaning, Svend-Erik (2018). "Different Types of Data and the Validity of Democracy Measures". Politics and Governance. 6 (1): 105. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i1.1183" rel="nofollow">10.17645/pag.v6i1.1183</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-RWBPFIndex-108"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-RWBPFIndex_108-0">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2014" rel="nofollow">"Press Freedom Index 2014"</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140214120404/http://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.php" rel="nofollow">Archived</a> 14 February 2014 at the <a title="Wayback Machine" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Reporters Without Borders, 11 May 2014</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-109">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/09/world-freedom-index-2013_n_2440620.html" rel="nofollow">" World Freedom Index 2013: Canadian Fraser Institute Ranks Countries "</a>, Ryan Craggs, Huffington Post, 14 January 2013</li>

<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-110">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="http://www.humanrightsdata.org/" rel="nofollow">"CIRI Human Rights Data Project"</a>, website. Retrieved 25 October 2013.</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-111">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web">Michael Kirk (10 December 2010). <a class="external text" href="http://today.uconn.edu/blog/2010/12/annual-international-human-rights-ratings-announced/" rel="nofollow">"Annual International Human Rights Ratings Announced"</a>. University of Connecticut.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-112">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://humanrightsdata.blogspot.jp/" rel="nofollow">"Human Rights in 2011: The CIRI Report"</a>. CIRI Human Rights Data Project. 29 August 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-DI-113"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-DI_113-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=DemocracyIndex12" rel="nofollow">"Democracy index 2012: Democracy at a standstill"</a>. Economist Intelligence Unit. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-114">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180817193254/http://www.hh.se/english/schoolofeducationhumanitiesandsocialsciences/research/maxrange.65441985_en.html" rel="nofollow">"MaxRange"</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.hh.se/english/schoolofeducationhumanitiesandsocialsciences/research/maxrange.65441985_en.html" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2015.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-115">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Fuchs, Dieter; Roller, Edeltraud (2018). "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Quality of Democracy: The Citizens' Perspective". Politics and Governance. 6 (1): 22. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i1.1188" rel="nofollow">10.17645/pag.v6i1.1188</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-116">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Mayne, Quinton; Geißel, Brigitte (2018). "Don't Good Democracies Need "Good" Citizens? Citizen Dispositions and the Study of Democratic Quality". Politics and Governance. 6(1): 33. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i1.1216" rel="nofollow">10.17645/pag.v6i1.1216</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Journal_of_Economic_Methodology-117">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Journal_of_Economic_Methodology_117-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Journal_of_Economic_Methodology_117-1">b</a> Alexander Krauss, 2016. <a class="external text" href="http://personal.lse.ac.uk/kraussa/The%20scientific%20limits%20of%20understanding%20the%20%28potential%29%20relationship%20between%20complex%20social%20phenomena%20--%20the%20case%20of%20democracy%20and%20inequality.pdf" rel="nofollow">The scientific limits of understanding the (potential) relationship between complex social phenomena: the case of democracy and inequality</a>. Vol. 23(1). <a class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1350178X.2015.1069372" rel="nofollow">Journal of Economic Methodology.</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-118"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-118">^{</a> }G.F. Gaus, C. Kukathas, Handbook of Political Theory, SAGE, 2004, pp. 143–45, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-7619-6787-7" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7619-6787-7">0-7619-6787-7</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RGisaLxA6eMC" rel="nofollow">Google Books link</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-119"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-119">^{</a> }The Judge in a Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 26, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-691-12017-X" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12017-X">0-691-12017-X</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC" rel="nofollow">Google Books link</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-Barak40-120"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Barak40_120-0">^{</a> }A. Barak, The Judge in a Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 40, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-691-12017-X" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12017-X">0-691-12017-X</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC" rel="nofollow">Google Books link</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-121"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-121">^{</a> }T.R. Williamson, Problems in American Democracy, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p. 36, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/1-4191-4316-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4191-4316-6">1-4191-4316-6</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrUlR8nc9Q8C" rel="nofollow">Google Books link</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-122"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-122">^{</a> }U.K. Preuss, "Perspectives of Democracy and the Rule of Law." Journal of Law and Society, 18:3 (1991). pp. 353–64</li>

<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-123">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Budge, Ian (2001). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=srzDCqnZkfUC&pg=PA224" rel="nofollow">"Direct democracy"</a>. In Clarke, Paul A.B.; Foweraker, Joe (eds.). Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Taylor & Francis. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19396-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19396-2"><bdi>978-0-415-19396-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-124"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-124">^{</a> }Bernard Manin. Principles of Representative Government. pp. 8–11 (1997).</li>

<li id="cite_note-125"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-125">^{</a> }Beramendi, Virginia, and Jennifer Somalie. Angeyo. Direct Democracy: The International Idea Handbook. Stockholm, Sweden: International IDEA, 2008. Print.</li>

<li id="cite_note-Golay-126">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Golay_126-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Golay_126-1">b</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Golay_126-2">c</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Golay_126-3">d</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Golay_126-4">e</a> Vincent Golay and Mix et Remix, Swiss political institutions, Éditions loisirs et pédagogie, 2008. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-2-606-01295-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-606-01295-3">978-2-606-01295-3</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-127">^{</a> }Niels Barmeyer, Developing Zapatista Autonomy, Chapter Three: Who is Running the Show? The Workings of Zapatista Government.</li>

<li id="cite_note-128"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-128">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Denham, Diana (2008). Teaching Rebellion: Stories from the Grassroots Mobilization in Oaxaca.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-129"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-129">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Zibechi, Raul (2013). Dispersing Power: Social Movements as Anti-State Forces in Latin America.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-130"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-130">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/29012015" rel="nofollow">"A Very Different Ideology in the Middle East"</a>. Rudaw.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-131">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990203212816/http://www.wsu.edu/_{dee/REV/RADICAL.HTM}" rel="nofollow">"Radical Revolution – The Thermidorean Reaction"</a>. Wsu.edu. 6 June 1999. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/_{dee/REV/RADICAL.HTM}" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 3 February 1999. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-132">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Köchler, Hans (1987). The Crisis of Representative Democracy. Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8204-8843-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8204-8843-2"><bdi>978-3-8204-8843-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-133"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-133">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Urbinati, Nadia (1 October 2008). "2". Representative Democracy: Principles and Genealogy. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84279-0" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84279-0"><bdi>978-0-226-84279-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-134"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-134">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFFenichel_Pitkin2004" class="citation journal">Fenichel Pitkin, Hanna (September 2004). "Representation and democracy: uneasy alliance". <a title="Scandinavian Political Studies" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_Political_Studies">Scandinavian Political Studies</a>. 27 (3): 335–42. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9477.2004.00109.x" rel="nofollow">10.1111/j.1467-9477.2004.00109.x</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-135"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-135">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Aristotle. "Ch. 9". Politics. Book 4.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-136"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-136">^{</a> }Keen, Benjamin, A History of Latin America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980.</li>

<li id="cite_note-137"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-137">^{</a> }Kuykendall, Ralph, Hawaii: A History. New York: Prentice Hall, 1948.</li>

<li id="cite_note-138"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-138">^{</a> }Brown, Charles H., The Correspondents' War. New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1967.</li>

<li id="cite_note-139"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-139">^{</a> }Taussig, Capt. J.K., "Experiences during the Boxer Rebellion," in Quarterdeck and Fo'c'sle. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1963</li>

<li id="cite_note-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010-140">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010_140-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010_140-1">b</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-O'Neil,Patrick_H_2010_140-2">c</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-O'Neil,_Patrick_H_2010_140-3">d</a> O'Neil, Patrick H. Essentials of Comparative Politics. 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton 2010. Print</li>

<li id="cite_note-141"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-141">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web">Garret, Elizabeth (13 October 2005). <a class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171009224922/http://clhc.usc.edu/centres/cslp/assets/docs/cslp-wp-048.pdf" rel="nofollow">"The Promise and Perils of Hybrid Democracy"</a> (PDF). The Henry Lecture, University of Oklahoma Law School. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://clhc.usc.edu/centres/cslp/assets/docs/cslp-wp-048.pdf" rel="nofollow">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 7 August 2012.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-142"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-142">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100117121519/http://www.themercury.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3985561" rel="nofollow">"Article on direct democracy by Imraan Buccus"</a>. Themercury.co.za. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.themercury.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3985561" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-143"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-143">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120805023214/http://www.sec.state.vt.us/TownMeeting/citizens_guide.html" rel="nofollow">"A Citizen's Guide To Vermont Town Meeting"</a>. July 2008. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.sec.state.vt.us/townmeeting/citizens_guide.html" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-144"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-144">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/republic" rel="nofollow">"Republic – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary"</a>. M-W.com. 25 April 2007. Retrieved 22 August2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-145"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-145">^{</a> }Novanglus, no. 7. 6 March 1775</li>

<li id="cite_note-146"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-146">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch18I.html" rel="nofollow">"The Founders' Constitution: Volume 1, Chapter 18, Introduction, "Epilogue: Securing the Republic""</a>. Press-pubs.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-147"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-147">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1961/08/08.htm" rel="nofollow">"Economics Cannot be Separated from Politics"</a> speech by Che Guevara to the ministerial meeting of the Inter-American Economic and Social Council (CIES), in Punta del Este, Uruguay on August 8, 1961</li>

<li id="cite_note-148"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-148">^{</a> }Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. General Idea of the Revolution See also commentary by <a title="Robert Graham (historian)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Graham_(historian)">Graham, Robert</a>. <a class="external text" href="http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/ANARCHIST_ARCHIVES/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html" rel="nofollow">The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-149"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-149">^{</a> }Bookchin, Murray. Communalism: The Democratic Dimensions of Social Anarchism. Anarchism, Marxism and the Future of the Left: Interviews and Essays, 1993–1998, AK Press 1999, p. 155</li>

<li id="cite_note-150"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-150">^{</a> }Bookchin, Murray. <a class="external text" href="http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bookchin/soclife.html" rel="nofollow">Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-151"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-151">^{</a> }Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century</li>

<li id="cite_note-disobedience-152"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-disobedience_152-0">^{</a> }Thoreau, H.D. <a class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/71/71.txt" rel="nofollow">On the Duty of Civil Disobedience</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-Imprint_Academic-153"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Imprint_Academic_153-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Dowlen, Oliver (2008). The Political Potential of Sortition: A study of the random selection of citizens for public office. Imprint Academic.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-154"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-154">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220629/http://www.danielearchibugi.org/downloads/papers/CD_and_critics_A_review.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Article on Cosmopolitan democracy by Daniele Archibugi"</a>(PDF). Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.danielearchibugi.org/downloads/papers/CD_and_critics_A_review.pdf" rel="nofollow">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-155"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-155">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://neutrino.aquaphoenix.com/un-esa/ws1997-letter-einstein.html" rel="nofollow">"letter by Einstein – "To the General Assembly of the United Nations""</a>. Retrieved 2 July 2013.</cite>, first published in United Nations World New York, Oct 1947, pp. 13–14</li>

<li id="cite_note-156"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-156">^{</a> }Daniele Archibugi & David Held, eds., Cosmopolitan Democracy. An Agenda for a New World Order, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995; David Held, Democracy and the Global Order, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995, Daniele Archibugi, <a class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8737.html" rel="nofollow">The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy</a>, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2008</li>

<li id="cite_note-157"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-157">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150212175652/http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/dewey/dewey_creative_democracy.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/dewey/dewey_creative_democracy.pdf" rel="nofollow">the original</a> (PDF)on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-158"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-158">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/17149/pdf" rel="nofollow">Ten Years After the Soviet Breakup: From Democratization to "Guided Democracy"</a> Journal of Democracy. By Archie Brown. Oct. 2001. Downloaded 28 April 2017.</li>

<li id="cite_note-159"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-159">^{</a> }<a class="external text" href="http://www.russialist.org/archives/2009-35-32.php" rel="nofollow">Putin’s Rule: Its Main Features and the Current Diarchy</a>Johnson's Russia List. By Peter Reddaway. 18 February 2009. Downloaded 28 April 2017.</li>

<li id="cite_note-160"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-160">^{</a> }Compare: <cite class="citation book">Tibi, Bassam (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uXAdAAAAQBAJ" rel="nofollow">The Sharia State: Arab Spring and Democratization</a>. p. 161. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92468-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92468-3"><bdi>978-1-135-92468-3</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-161"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-161">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.8.viii.html" rel="nofollow">"Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book VIII, Chapter 10 (1160a.31-1161a.9)"</a>. Internet Classics Archive. Retrieved 21 June 2018.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-162"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-162">^{</a> }<cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristotl.htm" rel="nofollow">"Aristotle"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-163">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:0_163-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:0_163-1">b</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:0_163-2">c</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:0_163-3">d</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-:0_163-4">e</a> <cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8304.html" rel="nofollow">"Deudney, D.: Bounding Power: Republican Security Theory from the Polis to the Global Village. (eBook and Paperback)"</a>. press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 14 March 2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-164"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-164">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Springer, Simon (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/354048" rel="nofollow">"Public Space as Emancipation: Meditations on Anarchism, Radical Democracy, Neoliberalism and Violence"</a>. Antipode. 43 (2): 525–62. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8330.2010.00827.x" rel="nofollow">10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00827.x</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-165"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-165">^{</a> }<a title="Joseph Schumpeter" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>, (1950). Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Harper Perennial. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-06-133008-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-133008-6">0-06-133008-6</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-166"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-166">^{</a> }<a title="Anthony Downs" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Downs">Anthony Downs</a>, (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harper Collins College. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-06-041750-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-041750-1">0-06-041750-1</a>.</li>

<li id="cite_note-167"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-167">^{</a> }<a title="Robert A. Dahl" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_A._Dahl">Dahl, Robert</a>, (1989). Democracy and its Critics. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-300-04938-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-04938-2">0-300-04938-2</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-168"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-168">^{</a> }Dworkin, Ronald (2006). Is Democracy Possible Here?Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13872-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13872-5">978-0-691-13872-5</a>, p. 134.</li>

<li id="cite_note-169"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-169">^{</a> }Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson (2002). Why Deliberative Democracy? Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12019-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12019-5">978-0-691-12019-5</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-170"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-170">^{</a> }Joshua Cohen, "Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy" in Essays on Reason and Politics: Deliberative Democracy Ed. James Bohman and William Rehg (The MIT Press: Cambridge) 1997, 72–73.</li>

<li id="cite_note-171"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-171">^{</a> }Ethan J. "Can Direct Democracy Be Made Deliberative?", Buffalo Law Review, Vol. 54, 2006</li>

<li id="cite_note-172"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-172">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://unchronicle.un.org/article/democracy-pre-condition-economic-growth-perspective-rise-modern-china" rel="nofollow">"Is Democracy a Pre-Condition in Economic Growth? A Perspective from the Rise of Modern China"</a>. UN Chronicle. Retrieved 24 January 2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Republic-173"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Republic_173-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Conversation of Socrates, Plato; H, Translated by Spens. The Republic of Plato – Book ten – A conversation between Socrates and Admimantus.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-174"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-174">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Femia, Joseph V. (2001). Against the masses : varieties of anti-democratic thought since the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-828063-7" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-828063-7"><bdi>978-0-19-828063-7</bdi></a>. <a title="OCLC" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46641885" rel="nofollow">46641885</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-175"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-175">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Dilliard, Irving (1941). Mr. Justice Brandeis, great American;press opinion and public appraisal. Saint Louis. <a title="Handle System" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System">hdl</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015009170443" rel="nofollow">2027/mdp.39015009170443</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-176"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-176">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="https://www.publishersweekly.com/9781845402624" rel="nofollow">"Book Review, In the Name of the People"</a>. Publishers Weekly. 3 April 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-177"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-177">^{</a> }Plato, the Republic of Plato (London: J.M Dent & Sons LTD.; New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc.), 558-C.</li>

<li id="cite_note-178"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-178">^{</a> }The contrast between Plato's theory of philosopher-kings, arresting change, and Aristotle's embrace of change, is the historical tension espoused by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Raimund Popper" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Raimund_Popper">Karl Raimund Popper</a> in his WWII treatise, The Open Society and its Enemies (1943).</li>

<li id="cite_note-179"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-179">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7671283.stm" rel="nofollow">"Head to head: African democracy"</a>. BBC News. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 1 April 2010.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-180"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-180">^{</a> }The Review of Policy Research, Volume 22, Issues 1–3, Policy Studies Organization, Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. p. 28</li>

<li id="cite_note-wp091108-181">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-wp091108_181-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-wp091108_181-1">b</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-wp091108_181-2">c</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-wp091108_181-3">d</a> <cite class="citation news"><a title="Paul Collier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Collier">Paul Collier</a> (8 November 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/06/AR2009110601906.html" rel="nofollow">"5 myths about the beauty of the ballot box"</a>. Washington Post. Washington Post. p. B2.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-182"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-182">^{</a> }For example: <cite class="citation journal">Lipset, Seymour Martin. (1959). "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy". American Political Science Review. 53 (1): 69–105. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1951731" rel="nofollow">10.2307/1951731</a>. <a title="JSTOR" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1951731" rel="nofollow">1951731</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-183"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-183">^{</a> }Inglehart, Ronald. Welzel, Christian Modernisation, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence, 2005. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li>

<li id="cite_note-184"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-184">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Inglehart, Ronald F. (2018). Cultural Evolution: People's Motivations Are Changing, and Reshaping the World. Cambridge University Press. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108613880" rel="nofollow">10.1017/9781108613880</a>. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-61388-0" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-61388-0"><bdi>978-1-108-61388-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-185"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-185">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Gibler, Douglas M.; Owsiak, Andrew (2017). "Democracy and the Settlement of International Borders, 1919–2001". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 62 (9): 1847–75. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002717708599" rel="nofollow">10.1177/0022002717708599</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-186"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-186">^{</a> }Foreword, written by historian <a class="external text" href="http://paw.princeton.edu/memorials/24/79/index.xml" rel="nofollow">Harry J Hogan</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130901040610/http://paw.princeton.edu/memorials/24/79/index.xml" rel="nofollow">Archived</a> 1 September 2013 at the <a title="Wayback Machine" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in 1982, to Quigley's Weapons Systems and Political Stability</li>

<li id="cite_note-187"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-187">^{</a> }see also Chester G Starr, Review of Weapons Systems and Political Stability, American Historical Review, Feb 1984, p. 98, available at <a class="external text" href="http://www.carrollquigley.net/book-reviews/Review-of-Weapons-Systems-Political-Stability-Starr.htm" rel="nofollow">carrollquigley.net</a></li>

<li id="cite_note-Quigley1983-38-188">^ <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Quigley1983-38_188-0">a</a> <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Quigley1983-38_188-1">b</a> <cite class="citation book">Carroll Quigley (1983). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L6e2AAAAIAAJ" rel="nofollow">Weapons systems and political stability: a history</a>. University Press of America. pp. 38–39. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2947-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2947-5"><bdi>978-0-8191-2947-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 May 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Quigley1983-307-189"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Quigley1983-307_189-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Carroll Quigley (1983). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L6e2AAAAIAAJ" rel="nofollow">Weapons systems and political stability: a history</a>. University Press of America. p. 307. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2947-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2947-5"><bdi>978-0-8191-2947-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 May 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-190"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-190">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Glaeser, E.; Ponzetto, G.; Shleifer, A. (2007). <a class="external text" href="http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:27867132" rel="nofollow">"Why does democracy need education?"</a>. Journal of Economic Growth. 12 (2): 77–99. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10887-007-9015-1" rel="nofollow">10.1007/s10887-007-9015-1</a>. Retrieved 3 July 2017.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-191"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-191">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Deary, I.J.; Batty, G.D.; Gale, C.R. (2008). <a class="external text" href="https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/8896064/bright_children_become_enlightened_adults.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Bright children become enlightened adults"</a> (PDF). Psychological Science. 19(1): 1–6. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2008.02036.x" rel="nofollow">10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02036.x</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18181782" rel="nofollow">18181782</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-192"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-192">^{</a> }Compare: <cite class="citation journal">Rindermann, H (2008). "Relevance of education and intelligence for the political development of nations: Democracy, rule of law and political liberty". Intelligence. 36(4): 306–22. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2007.09.003" rel="nofollow">10.1016/j.intell.2007.09.003</a>. <q>Political theory has described a positive linkage between education, cognitive ability and democracy. This assumption is confirmed by positive correlations between education, cognitive ability, and positively valued political conditions (N = 183 − 130). [...] It is shown that in the second half of the 20th century, education and intelligence had a strong positive impact on democracy, rule of law and political liberty independent from wealth (GDP) and chosen country sample. One possible mediator of these relationships is the attainment of higher stages of moral judgment fostered by cognitive ability, which is necessary for the function of democratic rules in society. The other mediators for citizens as well as for leaders could be the increased competence and willingness to process and seek information necessary for political decisions due to greater cognitive ability. There are also weaker and less stable reverse effects of the rule of law and political freedom on cognitive ability.</q></cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-193"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-193">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Albertus, Michael; Menaldo, Victor (2012). "Coercive Capacity and the Prospects for Democratisation". Comparative Politics. 44 (2): 151–69. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5129%2F001041512798838003" rel="nofollow">10.5129/001041512798838003</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-194"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-194">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.plawlotic.com/?p=8" rel="nofollow">"The Resource Curse: Does the Emperor Have no Clothes?"</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-195"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-195">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book"><a title="Daron Acemoglu" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu">Acemoglu, Daron</a>; Robinson, James A. (2006). Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85526-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85526-6"><bdi>978-0-521-85526-6</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-196"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-196">^{</a> }<cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.plawlotic.com/?p=102" rel="nofollow">"Rainfall and Democracy"</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-197"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-197">^{</a> }<cite class="citation journal">Alsan, Marcella (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.dartmouth.edu/_{neudc2012/docs/paper_285.pdf}" rel="nofollow">"The Effect of the TseTse Fly on African Development"</a> (PDF). American Economic Review. 105(1): 382–410. <a title="CiteSeerX" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX">CiteSeerX</a> <a class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1010.2955" rel="nofollow">10.1.1.1010.2955</a>. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.20130604" rel="nofollow">10.1257/aer.20130604</a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-198"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-198">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James (2005). "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth". Handbook of Economic Growth. Handbook of Economic Growth. 1. pp. 385–472, Sections 1 to 4. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1574-0684%2805%2901006-3" rel="nofollow">10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01006-3</a>. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52041-8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52041-8"><bdi>978-0-444-52041-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-199"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-199">^{</a> }Mellinger, Andrew D., Jeffrey Sachs, and John L. Gallup. (1999). <a class="external text" href="http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/about/director/pubs/024.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Climate, Water Navigability, and Economic Development"</a>. Working Paper.</li>

<li id="cite_note-200"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-200">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James (2005). "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth". Handbook of Economic Growth. Handbook of Economic Growth. 1. pp. 385–472, Sections 5 to 10. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1574-0684%2805%2901006-3" rel="nofollow">10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01006-3</a>. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52041-8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52041-8"><bdi>978-0-444-52041-8</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-201"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-201">^{</a> }<cite class="citation news"><a title="Elizabeth Farrelly" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Farrelly">Farrelly, Elizabeth</a> (15 September 2011). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111230084034/http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/society-and-culture/deafened-by-roar-of-the-crowd-20110914-1k9lo.html" rel="nofollow">"Deafened by the roar of the crowd"</a>. The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/society-and-culture/deafened-by-roar-of-the-crowd-20110914-1k9lo.html" rel="nofollow">the original</a> on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-Michels1915-202"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-Michels1915_202-0">^{</a> }<cite class="citation book">Robert Michels (1999) [1962 by <a title="Collier's" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collier%27s">Crowell-Collier</a>]. <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ijae_UIez38C" rel="nofollow">Political Parties</a>. <a title="Transaction Publishers" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. p. 243. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-3116-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-3116-1"><bdi>978-1-4128-3116-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 June 2013.</cite></li>

<li id="cite_note-203"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-203">^{</a> }Harald Wydra, Communism and the Emergence of Democracy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 22–27.</li>

<li id="cite_note-204"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy#cite_ref-204">^{</a> }Compare: <cite class="citation book"><a title="Harald Wydra" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Wydra">Wydra, Harald</a> (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pQDwFB-k2LcC" rel="nofollow">"Democracy as a process of meaning-formation"</a>. Communism and the Emergence of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 244–68. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46218-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46218-1"><bdi>978-1-139-46218-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 August 2018.</cite></li>

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<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">Further reading<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: Further reading" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=53" data-section="53">Edit</a></h2>

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<td class="mbox-text">Learn more

<div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Layout" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Layout#Further_reading">further reading</a> may not follow Wikipedia's <a title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_mirror_or_a_repository_of_links,images,or_media_files">content policies</a> or <a title="Wikipedia:External links" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links">guidelines</a>. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing less relevant or redundant publications with the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WEIGHT" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WEIGHT">same point of view</a>; or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate <a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources">citations</a>.</div>

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<ul>

<li>Abbott, Lewis. (2006). British Democracy: Its Restoration and Extension. <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xlZ_H7tE8cIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=9780906321522+++Title:%09British+Democracy:+Its+Restoration+%26+Extension#v=onepage&q&f=false" rel="nofollow">ISR/Google Books.</a></li>

<li>Appleby, Joyce. (1992). Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination. Harvard University Press.</li>

<li><a title="Daniele Archibugi" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi">Archibugi, Daniele</a>, <a class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8737.html" rel="nofollow">The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy, Princeton University Press</a> <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13490-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13490-1">978-0-691-13490-1</a></li>

<li>Becker, Peter, Heideking, Juergen, & Henretta, James A. (2002). Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750–1850. Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80066-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80066-2">978-0-521-80066-2</a></li>

<li>Benhabib, Seyla. (1996). Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political. Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04478-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04478-1">978-0-691-04478-1</a></li>

<li><a class="new" title="Charles Blattberg (page does not exist)" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Blattberg&action=edit&redlink=1">Blattberg, Charles</a>. (2000). From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First, Oxford University Press, <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829688-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829688-1">978-0-19-829688-1</a>.</li>

<li>Birch, Anthony H. (1993). The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy. London: Routledge. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41463-0" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41463-0">978-0-415-41463-0</a></li>

<li>Bittar, Eduardo C.B. (2016). "Democracy, Justice and Human Rights: Studies of Critical Theory and Social Philosophy of Law". Saarbrücken: LAP, 2016. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-3-659-86065-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-659-86065-2">978-3-659-86065-2</a></li>

<li>Castiglione, Dario. (2005). "<a class="external text" href="http://www.huss.ex.ac.uk/politics/research/readingroom/CastiglioneRepublicanism.pdf#search=%22republicanism%20historiography%22" rel="nofollow">Republicanism and its Legacy</a>." European Journal of Political Theory. pp. 453–65.</li>

<li>Copp, David, Jean Hampton, & John E. Roemer. (1993). The Idea of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43254-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43254-2">978-0-521-43254-2</a></li>

<li>Caputo, Nicholas. (2005). America's Bible of Democracy: Returning to the Constitution. SterlingHouse Publisher, Inc. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58501-092-9" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58501-092-9">978-1-58501-092-9</a></li>

<li>Dahl, Robert A. (1991). Democracy and its Critics. Yale University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04938-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04938-1">978-0-300-04938-1</a></li>

<li>Dahl, Robert A. (2000). On Democracy. Yale University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08455-9" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08455-9">978-0-300-08455-9</a></li>

<li>Dahl, Robert A. Ian Shapiro & Jose Antonio Cheibub. (2003). The Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54147-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-54147-3">978-0-262-54147-3</a></li>

<li>Dahl, Robert A. (1963). A Preface to Democratic Theory. University of Chicago Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-13426-0" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-13426-0">978-0-226-13426-0</a></li>

<li>Davenport, Christian. (2007). State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace. Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86490-9" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86490-9">978-0-521-86490-9</a></li>

<li>Diamond, Larry & Marc Plattner. (1996). The Global Resurgence of Democracy. <a title="Johns Hopkins University Press" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5304-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5304-3">978-0-8018-5304-3</a></li>

<li>Diamond, Larry & Richard Gunther. (2001). Political Parties and Democracy. JHU Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6863-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6863-4">978-0-8018-6863-4</a></li>

<li>Diamond, Larry & Leonardo Morlino. (2005). Assessing the Quality of Democracy. JHU Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8287-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8287-6">978-0-8018-8287-6</a></li>

<li>Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Philip J. Costopoulos. (2005). World Religions and Democracy. JHU Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8080-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8080-3">978-0-8018-8080-3</a></li>

<li>Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Daniel Brumberg. (2003). Islam and Democracy in the Middle East. JHU Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7847-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7847-3">978-0-8018-7847-3</a></li>

<li>Elster, Jon. (1998). Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59696-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59696-1">978-0-521-59696-1</a></li>

<li>Emerson, Peter (2007) "Designing an All-Inclusive Democracy." Springer. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-33163-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-33163-6">978-3-540-33163-6</a></li>

<li>Emerson, Peter (2012) "Defining Democracy." Springer. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-20903-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-20903-1">978-3-642-20903-1</a></li>

<li><a title="William Everdell" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Everdell">Everdell, William R.</a> (2003) The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/0-226-22482-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-22482-1">0-226-22482-1</a>.</li>

<li><cite class="citation book"><a title="Roslyn Fuller" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roslyn_Fuller">Fuller, Roslyn</a> (2015). Beasts and Gods: How Democracy Changed Its Meaning and Lost its Purpose. United Kingdom: Zed Books. p. 371. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78360-542-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78360-542-2"><bdi>978-1-78360-542-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li>Gabardi, Wayne. (2001). Contemporary Models of Democracy. Polity.</li>

<li>Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson. (1996). Democracy and Disagreement. Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-19766-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-19766-4">978-0-674-19766-4</a></li>

<li>Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson. (2002). Why Deliberative Democracy? Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12019-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12019-5">978-0-691-12019-5</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation book"><a title="Richard Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Haldane,_1st_Viscount_Haldane">Haldane, Robert Burdone</a> (1918). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_future_of_democracy">The future of democracy </a>. London: Headley Bros. Publishers Ltd.</cite></li>

<li>Halperin, M.H., Siegle, J.T. & Weinstein, M.M. (2005). The Democracy Advantage: How Democracies Promote Prosperity and Peace. Routledge. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-95052-7" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-95052-7">978-0-415-95052-7</a></li>

<li><a title="Mogens Herman Hansen" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogens_Herman_Hansen">Hansen, Mogens Herman</a>. (1991). The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes. Oxford: Blackwell. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18017-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18017-3">978-0-631-18017-3</a></li>

<li>Held, David. (2006). Models of Democracy. Stanford University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5472-9" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5472-9">978-0-8047-5472-9</a></li>

<li>Inglehart, Ronald. (1997). Modernisation and Postmodernisation. Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01180-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01180-6">978-0-691-01180-6</a></li>

<li>Isakhan, Ben and Stockwell, Stephen (co-editors). (2011) The Secret History of Democracy. Palgrave MacMillan. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-24421-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-24421-4">978-0-230-24421-4</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation book">Jarvie, I.C.; Milford, K. (2006). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w-BEoTj0axoC" rel="nofollow">Karl Popper: Life and time, and values in a world of facts Volume 1 of Karl Popper: A Centenary Assessment</a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5375-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5375-2"><bdi>978-0-7546-5375-2</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li>Khan, L. Ali. (2003). A Theory of Universal Democracy: Beyond the End of History. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-2003-8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-2003-8">978-90-411-2003-8</a></li>

<li><a title="Hans Köchler" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_K%C3%B6chler">Köchler, Hans</a>. (1987). The Crisis of Representative Democracy. Peter Lang. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8204-8843-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8204-8843-2">978-3-8204-8843-2</a></li>

<li>Lijphart, Arend. (1999). Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. Yale University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07893-0" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07893-0">978-0-300-07893-0</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation journal">Lipset, Seymour Martin (1959). "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy". American Political Science Review. 53 (1): 69–105. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1951731" rel="nofollow">10.2307/1951731</a>. <a title="JSTOR" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1951731" rel="nofollow">1951731</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Macpherson, C.B. (1977). The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy. Oxford University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289106-8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289106-8">978-0-19-289106-8</a></li>

<li>Morgan, Edmund. (1989). Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America. Norton. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30623-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30623-1">978-0-393-30623-1</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation book">Mosley, Ivo (2003). Democracy, Fascism, and the New World Order. Imprint Academic. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-907845-64-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-907845-64-5"><bdi>978-0-907845-64-5</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book">Mosley, Ivo (2013). In The Name Of The People. Imprint Academic. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84540-262-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84540-262-4"><bdi>978-1-84540-262-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOberHedrick1996" class="citation book">Ober, J.; Hedrick, C.W. (1996). Dēmokratia: a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01108-0" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01108-0"><bdi>978-0-691-01108-0</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li>Plattner, Marc F. & Aleksander Smolar. (2000). Globalisation, Power, and Democracy. JHU Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6568-8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6568-8">978-0-8018-6568-8</a></li>

<li>Plattner, Marc F. & João Carlos Espada. (2000). The Democratic Invention. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6419-3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6419-3">978-0-8018-6419-3</a></li>

<li>Putnam, Robert. (2001). <a title="Making Democracy Work" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Making_Democracy_Work">Making Democracy Work</a>. Princeton University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-5-551-09103-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-551-09103-5">978-5-551-09103-5</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRaaflaubOberWallace2007" class="citation book">Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert W (2007). Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece. University of California Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24562-4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24562-4"><bdi>978-0-520-24562-4</bdi></a>.</cite></li>

<li><a title="William H. Riker" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Riker">Riker, William H.</a>. (1962). <a title="The Theory of Political Coalitions" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theory_of_Political_Coalitions">The Theory of Political Coalitions</a>. Yale University Press.</li>

<li><cite class="citation journal">Sen, Amartya K. (1999). "Democracy as a Universal Value". Journal of Democracy. 10 (3): 3–17. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.1999.0055" rel="nofollow">10.1353/jod.1999.0055</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Tannsjo, Torbjorn. (2008). Global Democracy: The Case for a World Government. Edinburgh University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-3499-6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-3499-6">978-0-7486-3499-6</a>. Argues that not only is world government necessary if we want to deal successfully with global problems it is also, pace Kant and Rawls, desirable in its own right.</li>

<li>Thompson, Dennis (1970). The Democratic Citizen: Social Science and Democratic Theory in the 20th Century. Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13173-5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13173-5">978-0-521-13173-5</a></li>

<li><a title="Adam Tooze" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Tooze">Tooze, Adam</a>, "Democracy and Its Discontents", <a title="The New York Review of Books" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 52–53, 56–57. "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of <a title="Bureaucracy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucracy">bureaucratic</a> and <a title="Technology" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology">technological power</a>. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of <a title="Artificial intelligence" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> and <a title="Robotics" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics">robotics</a>. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the <a title="Environmentalism" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalism">environmental problem</a> remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour:<a title="Corporation" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation">corporations</a> and the technologies they promote." (pp. 56–57.)</li>

<li>Vinje, Victor Condorcet (2014). The Versatile Farmers of the North; The Struggle of Norwegian Yeomen for Economic Reforms and Political Power, 1750–1814. Nisus Publications.</li>

<li>Volk, Kyle G. (2014). Moral Minorities and the Making of American Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.</li>

<li><cite class="citation journal">Weingast, Barry. (1997). "The Political Foundations of the Rule of Law and Democracy". American Political Science Review. 91 (2): 245–63. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2952354" rel="nofollow">10.2307/2952354</a>. <a title="JSTOR" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2952354" rel="nofollow">2952354</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Weatherford, Jack. (1990). Indian Givers: How the Indians Transformed the World. New York: Fawcett Columbine. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-449-90496-1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-449-90496-1">978-0-449-90496-1</a></li>

<li>Whitehead, Laurence. (2002). Emerging Market Democracies: East Asia and Latin America. JHU Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7219-8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7219-8">978-0-8018-7219-8</a></li>

<li>Willard, Charles Arthur. (1996). Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy. University of Chicago Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-89845-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-89845-2">978-0-226-89845-2</a></li>

<li>Wood, E. M. (1995). Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing historical materialism. Cambridge University Press. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47682-9" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47682-9">978-0-521-47682-9</a></li>

<li>Wood, Gordon S. (1991). The Radicalism of the American Revolution. Vintage Books. <a title="International Standard Book Number" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number">ISBN</a> <a title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-73688-2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-73688-2">978-0-679-73688-2</a> examines democratic dimensions of republicanism</li>

</ul>

</div>

<h2 class="section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" tabindex="0">External links<a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page mw-ui-icon-flush-right" title="Edit section: External links" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&section=54" data-section="54">Edit</a></h2>

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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Democracy" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Democracy">Democracy</a>.</td>

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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <a class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Democracy" href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Democracy">Democracy</a></td>

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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <a class="extiw" title="wiktionary:democracy" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/democracy">democracy</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</td>

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<ul>

<li><a class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democracy" rel="nofollow">Democracy</a> at the <a title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-78" rel="nofollow">Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Democracy</a></li>

<li><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081214053945/http://a330.g.akamai.net/7/330/25828/20081021185552/graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy%20Index%202008.pdf" rel="nofollow">The Economist Intelligence Unit's index of democracy</a></li>

<li><a class="external text" href="http://xroads.virginia.edu/_{HYPER/DETOC/home.html}" rel="nofollow">Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America</a> Full hypertext with critical essays on America in 1831–32 from American Studies at the University of Virginia</li>

<li><a class="external text" href="https://v-dem.net/" rel="nofollow">The Varieties of Democracy project</a>. Indicators of hundreds of attributes of democracy and non-democracy for most countries from 1900 to 2018, and from as early as 1789 for dozens of countries, with many interactive online graphics tools</li>

<li><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140608221353/http://www.ourworldindata.org/data/political-regimes/democratisation/" rel="nofollow">Data visualizations of data on democratisation and list of data sources on political regimes</a> on 'Our World in Data', by <a title="Max Roser" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Roser">Max Roser</a>.</li>

<li><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119190339/http://www.hh.se/english/schoolofeducationhumanitiesandsocialsciences/research/maxrange.65441985_en.html" rel="nofollow">MaxRange: Analyzing political regimes and democratization processes</a>—Classifying political regime type and democracy level to all states and months 1789–2015</li>

<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547jm" rel="nofollow">"Democracy"</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Melissa Lane, David Wootton and Tim Winter (In Our Time, 18 October 2001)</li>

<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=07llgR_1Euc" rel="nofollow">Democracy (1945)</a> on <a title="YouTube" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube">YouTube</a> Encyclopædia Britannica Films</li>

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<div class="content last-modified-barcontent"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:History/Democracy">Last edited 17 hours ago</a> by <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:El_C">El C</a></div>

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