organo-chlorine

belated<div><p class="section_head1" style="margin: 0px 20px 9px 0px; font-size: small; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; padding: 0px; border: 0px; outline: 0px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 18px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">=http://www.alternet.org/environment/pesticide-exposure-linked-abnormal-spermExposure to organochlorine chemicals, such as DDE and PCBs, is linked to increased rates of sperm abnormalities that may lead to fertility problems, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/15-09779/" style="text-decoration-line: none; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 51, 153); outline: none;">Environmental Health Perspectives</a>. This is the latest study in a long line of research implicating <a href="http://beyondpesticides.org/resources/pesticide-induced-diseases-database/endocrine-disruption" style="text-decoration-line: none; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 51, 153); outline: none;">endocrine (hormone)-disrupting chemicals</a> in reproductive diseases.
=<div></div><div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan</a></div><div>
</div><div>Endosulfan is an off-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">patent</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organochlorine" class="mw-redirect" title="Organochlorine" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">organochlorine</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">insecticide</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acaricide" title="Acaricide" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">acaricide</a> that is being phased out globally. The two isomers, endo and exo, are known popularly as I and II. Endosulfan sulfate is a product of oxidation containing one extra O atom attached to the S atom. Endosulfan became a highly controversial agrichemical<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-AuBC-2" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[2]</a> due to its acute <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">toxicity</a>, potential for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">bioaccumulation</a>, and role as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">endocrine disruptor</a>. Because of its threats to human health and the environment, a global ban on the manufacture and use of endosulfan was negotiated under the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm Convention" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Stockholm Convention</a> in April 2011. The ban has taken effect in mid-2012, with certain uses exempted for five additional years.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-3" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[3]</a> More than 80 countries,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a> including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">European Union</a>, Australia, New Zealand, several West African nations,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-aus-weeklytimes-5" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[5]</a> the United States,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-endosulfan-6" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[6]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-EPA2010-7" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[7]</a> Brazil,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-8" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[8]</a> and Canada<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-9" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[9]</a> had already banned it or announced phase-outs by the time the Stockholm Convention ban was agreed upon. It is still used extensively in India, China despite laws banning it, and few other countries. It is produced by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhteshim_Agan" class="mw-redirect" title="Makhteshim Agan" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Makhteshim Agan</a> and several manufacturers in India and China. Although, the Supreme Court had, by an order dated 13.05.2011, put a ban on the production and sale of endosulfan in India till further orders.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-10" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[10]</a><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading" style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); background-color: rgb(248, 249, 250); padding: 7px; display: table;"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading" style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border: 0px; line-height: 1.3; display: inline;">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox" style="cursor: pointer;" /></div><ul style="list-style: none; margin: 0.3em 0px; padding: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Uses" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">1Uses</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Production" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2Production</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#History_of_commercialization_and_regulation" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">3History of commercialization and regulation</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Health_effects" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4Health effects</a><ul style="list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Toxicity" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4.1Toxicity</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Endocrine_disruption" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4.2Endocrine disruption</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Reproductive_and_developmental_effects" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4.3Reproductive and developmental effects</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Cancer" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4.4Cancer</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Environmental_fate" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">5Environmental fate</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Status_by_region" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6Status by region</a><ul style="list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#India" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6.1India</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#New_Zealand" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6.2New Zealand</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Philippines" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6.3Philippines</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#United_States" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6.4United States</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Australia" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6.5Australia</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Taiwan" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6.6Taiwan</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#Brazil" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6.7Brazil</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#References" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">7References</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#External_links" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">8External links</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Uses[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endosulfan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Uses" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2>Endosulfan has been used in agriculture around the world to control insect pests including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Whiteflies" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">whiteflies</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphids" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">aphids</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafhopper" title="Leafhopper" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">leafhoppers</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_potato_beetle" title="Colorado potato beetle" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Colorado potato beetles</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage_worm" title="Cabbage worm" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">cabbage worms</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Canada-11" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[11]</a> Due to its unique mode of action, it is useful in resistance management; however, as it is not specific, it can negatively impact populations of beneficial insects.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-12" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[12]</a> It is, however, considered to be moderately toxic to honey bees,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-13" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[13]</a> and it is less toxic to bees than <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">organophosphate</a> insecticides.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Production[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endosulfan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Production" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">World Health Organization</a> estimated worldwide annual production to be about 9,000 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric tonne" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">metric tonnes</a> (t) in the early 1980s.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-EHC-15" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[15]</a> From 1980 to 1989, worldwide consumption averaged 10,500 tonnes per year, and for the 1990s use increased to 12,800 tonnes per year.Endosulfan is a derivative of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexachlorocyclopentadiene" title="Hexachlorocyclopentadiene" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">hexachlorocyclopentadiene</a>, and is chemically similar to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldrin" title="Aldrin" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">aldrin</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlordane" title="Chlordane" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">chlordane</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptachlor" title="Heptachlor" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">heptachlor</a>. Specifically, it is produced by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diels_Alder" class="mw-redirect" title="Diels Alder" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Diels-Alder</a> reaction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cis-Butene-1,4-diol" title="Cis-Butene-1,4-diol" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">cis-butene-1,4-diol</a> and subsequent reaction of the adduct with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thionyl_chloride" title="Thionyl chloride" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">thionyl chloride</a>. Technical endosulfan is a 7:3 mixture of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoisomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereoisomers" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">stereoisomers</a>, designated α and β. α- and β-Endosulfan are configurational <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomers" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">isomers</a> arising from the pyramidal stereochemistry of the teravalent sulfur. α-Endosulfan is the more thermodynamically stable of the two, thus β-endosulfan irreversibly converts to the α form, although the conversion is slow.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-16" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[16]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Ullmann-17" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[17]</a><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">History of commercialization and regulation[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endosulfan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of commercialization and regulation" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Early 1950s: Endosulfan was developed.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">1954: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoechst_AG" title="Hoechst AG" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Hoechst AG</a> (now <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi" title="Sanofi" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Sanofi</a>) won <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">USDA</a> approval for the use of endosulfan in the United States.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-ATSDR-18" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[18]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2000: Home and garden use in the United States was terminated by agreement with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">EPA</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2002: The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> recommended that endosulfan registration should be cancelled,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-19" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[19]</a> and the EPA determined that endosulfan residues on food and in water pose unacceptable risks. The agency allowed endosulfan to stay on the US market, but imposed restrictions on its agricultural uses.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2007: International steps were taken to restrict the use and trade of endosulfan. It is recommended for inclusion in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention" title="Rotterdam Convention" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Rotterdam Convention</a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_Informed_Consent" class="mw-redirect" title="Prior Informed Consent" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Prior Informed Consent</a>,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-DGD-20" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[20]</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">European Union</a> proposed inclusion in the list of chemicals banned under the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm Convention" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants</a>. Such inclusion would ban all use and manufacture of endosulfan globally.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Stockholm-21" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[21]</a> Meanwhile, the Canadian government announced that endosulfan was under consideration for phase-out,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-22" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[22]</a> and Bayer CropScience voluntarily pulled its endosulfan products from the U.S. market<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-23" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[23]</a> but continues to sell the products elsewhere.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-24" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[24]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2008: In February, environmental, consumer, and farm labor groups including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council" title="Natural Resources Defense Council" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Natural Resources Defense Council</a>,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-25" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[25]</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_Consumers_Association" title="Organic Consumers Association" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Organic Consumers Association</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">United Farm Workers</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-26" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[26]</a> called on the U.S. EPA to ban endosulfan. In May, coalitions of scientists,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid18686727-27" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[27]</a> environmental groups, and arctic tribes asked the EPA to cancel endosulfan,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-28" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[28]</a> and in July a coalition of environmental and workers groups filed a lawsuit against the EPA challenging its 2002 decision to not ban it.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-suit-29" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[29]</a> In October, the Review Committee of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm Convention" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Stockholm Convention</a> moved endosulfan along in the procedure for listing under the treaty,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-30" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[30]</a> while India blocked its addition to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention" title="Rotterdam Convention" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Rotterdam Convention</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-31" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[31]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2009: The Stockholm Convention's Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC) agreed that endosulfan is a persistent organic pollutant and that "global action is warranted", setting the stage of a global ban.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-32" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[32]</a> New Zealand banned endosulfan.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-ERMA-33" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[33]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2010: The POPRC nominated endosulfan to be added to the Stockholm Convention at the Conference of Parties (COP) in April 2011, which would result in a global ban.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-34" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[34]</a> The EPA announced that the registration of endosulfan in the U.S. will be cancelled<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-EPA2010-7" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[7]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-35" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[35]</a> Australia banned the use of the chemical.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-36" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[36]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2011: The Supreme Court of India banned manufacture, sale, and use of toxic pesticide endosulfan in India. The apex court said the ban would remain effective for eight weeks during which an expert committee headed by DG, ICMR, will give an interim report to the court about the harmful effect of the widely used pesticide.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-37" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[37]</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">2011: the Argentinian Service for Sanity and Agroalimentary Quality (SENASA) decided on August 8 that the import of endosulfan into the South American country will be banned from July 1, 2012 and its commercialization and use from July 1, 2013. In the meantime, a reduced quantity can be imported and sold.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-38" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[38]</a></li></ul><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Health effects[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endosulfan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Health effects" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2>Endosulfan is alleged to be responsible for many fatal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide_poisoning" title="Pesticide poisoning" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">pesticide poisoning</a> incidents around the world by NGOs opposing pesticide usage.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-39" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[39]</a> Endosulfan is also a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoestrogen" title="Xenoestrogen" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">xenoestrogen</a>—a synthetic substance that imitates or enhances the effect of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">estrogens</a>—and it can act as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">endocrine disruptor</a>, causing reproductive and developmental damage in both animals and humans.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Raun_AndersenVinggaard2002-40" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[40]</a> It has also been found to act as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatase_inhibitor" title="Aromatase inhibitor" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">aromatase inhibitor</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Raun_AndersenVinggaard2002-40" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[40]</a> Whether endosulfan can <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">cause cancer</a> is debated. With regard to consumers' intake of endosulfan from residues on food, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations</a> has concluded that long-term exposure from food is unlikely to present a public health concern, but short-term exposure can exceed acute <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_dose" title="Reference dose" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">reference doses</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-41" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[41]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Toxicity[</h3>Endosulfan is acutely <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">neurotoxic</a> to both <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">insects</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">mammals</a>, including humans. The US EPA classifies it as Category I: "Highly Acutely Toxic" based on a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">LD50</a> value of 30 mg/kg for female <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat" title="Rat" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">rats</a>,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a> while the World Health Organization classifies it as Class II "Moderately Hazardous" based on a rat LD50 of 80 mg/kg.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-42" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[42]</a> It is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaba_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaba receptor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">GABA-gated chloride channel</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">antagonist</a>, and a Ca2+, Mg2+ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATPase" title="ATPase" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">ATPase</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">inhibitor</a>. Both of these <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">enzymes</a> are involved in the transfer of nerve impulses. Symptoms of acute poisoning include hyperactivity, tremors, convulsions, lack of coordination, staggering, difficulty breathing, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, and in severe cases, unconsciousness.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-ATSDR-18" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[18]</a> Doses as low as 35 mg/kg have been documented to cause death in humans,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-PIM-43" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[43]</a> and many cases of sublethal poisoning have resulted in permanent brain damage.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-ATSDR-18" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[18]</a> Farm workers with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habit (psychology)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">chronic</a> endosulfan exposure are at risk of rashes and skin irritation.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a>EPA's acute reference dose for dietary exposure to endosulfan is 0.015 mg/kg for adults and 0.0015 mg/kg for children. For chronic dietary expsoure, the EPA references doses are 0.006 mg/(kg·day) and 0.0006 mg/(kg·day) for adults and children, respectively.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Endocrine disruption[</h3><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theo_Colborn" title="Theo Colborn" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">Theo Colborn</a>, an expert on endocrine disruption, lists endosulfan as a known endocrine disruptor,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-44" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[44]</a> and both the EPA and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry" title="Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry</a> consider endosulfan to be a potential endocrine disruptor. Numerous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">in vitro</a> studies have documented its potential to disrupt hormones and animal studies have demonstrated its reproductive and developmental toxicity, especially among males.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-ATSDR-18" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[18]</a> A number of studies have documented that it acts as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiandrogen" title="Antiandrogen" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">antiandrogen</a> in animals.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Raun_AndersenVinggaard2002-40" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[40]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid9465275-45" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[45]</a> Endosulfan has shown to affect crustacean molt cycles, which are important biological and endocrine-controlled physiological processes essential for the crustacean growth and reproduction.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid22119282-46" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[46]</a> Environmentally relevant doses of endosulfan equal to the EPA's safe dose of 0.006 mg/kg/day have been found to affect <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">gene expression</a> in female rats similarly to the effects of estrogen.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid18790044-47" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[47]</a> It is not known whether endosulfan is a human <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">teratogen</a> (an agent that causes birth defects), though it has significant teratogenic effects in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_rat" title="Laboratory rat" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">laboratory rats</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid17186572-48" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[48]</a> A 2009 assessment concluded the endocrine disruption in rats occurs only at endosulfan doses that cause neurotoxicity.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Silva-49" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[49]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Reproductive and developmental effects[</h3>Some studies have documented that endosulfan can also affect human development. Researchers studying children from many villages in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasargod" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasargod" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Kasargod</a> District, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Kerala</a>, India, have linked endosulfan exposure to delays in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">sexual maturity</a> among boys. Endosulfan was the only pesticide applied to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashew" title="Cashew" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">cashew</a> plantations in the villages for 20 years, and had contaminated the village environment. The researchers compared the villagers to a control group of boys from a demographically similar village that lacked a history of endosulfan pollution. Relative to the control group, the exposed boys had high levels of endosulfan in their bodies, lower levels of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">testosterone</a>, and delays in reaching sexual maturity. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth defects" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Birth defects</a> of the male reproductive system, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism" title="Cryptorchidism" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">cryptorchidism</a>, were also more prevalent in the study group. The researchers concluded, "our study results suggest that endosulfan exposure in male children may delay sexual maturity and interfere with sex hormone synthesis."<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Saiyed-50" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[50]</a> Increased incidences of cryptorchidism have been observed in other studies of endosulfan exposed populations.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-51" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[51]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-52" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[52]</a>A 2007 study by the California Department of Public Health found that women who lived near farm fields sprayed with endosulfan and the related organochloride pesticide <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicofol" title="Dicofol" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">dicofol</a> during the first eight weeks of pregnancy are several times more likely to give birth to children with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism" title="Autism" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">autism</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-53" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[53]</a> However a 2009 assessment concluded that epidemiology and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing_on_rodents" title="Animal testing on rodents" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">rodent studies</a> that suggest male reproductive and autism effects are open to other interpretations, and that developmental or reproductive toxicity in rats occurs only at endosulfan doses that cause neurotoxicity.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Silva-49" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[49]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Cancer[</h3>Endosulfan is not listed as known, probable, or possible <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">carcinogen</a> by the EPA, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">IARC</a>, or other agencies. No epidemiological studies link exposure to endosulfan specifically to cancer in humans, but in vitro assays have shown that endosulfan can promote proliferation of human <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">breast cancer</a> cells.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-54" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[54]</a> Evidence of carcinogenicity in animals is mixed.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-ATSDR-18" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[18]</a>In a 2016 study<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-55" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[55]</a> by the Department of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Biochemistry</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Science" title="Indian Institute of Science" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Indian Institute of Science</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore" title="Bangalore" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Bangalore</a> published in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogenesis(journal)" title="Carcinogenesis (journal)" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Carcinogenesis</a>, endosulfan was found to induce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">reactive oxygen species</a> (ROS) in a concentration and time-dependent manner leading to double-stranded breaks in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">DNA</a> and also found to favour subsequent erroneous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">DNA repair</a>.<h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Environmental fate[</h2>Endosulfan is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. The chemical is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-Volatile_Organic_Compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-Volatile Organic Compound" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">semivolatile</a> and persistent to degradation processes in the environment. Endosulfan is subject to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">long-range atmospheric transport</a>, i.e. it can travel long distances from where it is used. Thus, it occurs in many environmental compartments. For example, a 2008 report by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">National Park Service</a> found that endosulfan commonly contaminates air, water, plants, and fish of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_park" title="National park" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">national parks</a> in the US. Most of these parks are far from areas where endosulfan is used.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-56" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[56]</a> Endosulfan has been found in remote locations such as the Arctic Ocean, as well as in the Antarctic atmosphere.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-sciencedirect-57" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[57]</a> The pesticide has also been detected in dust from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Sahara Desert</a> collected in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Caribbean</a> after being blown across the Atlantic Ocean.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-58" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[58]</a> The compound has been shown to be one of the most abundant organochlorine pesticides in the global atmosphere.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-sciencedirect-57" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[57]</a>The compound breaks down into endosulfan sulfate, endosulfan diol, and endosulfan furan, all of which have structures similar to the parent compound and, according to the EPA, "are also of toxicological concern…The estimated half-lives for the combined toxic residues (endosulfan plus endosulfan sulfate) [range] from roughly 9 months to 6 years." The EPA concluded, "[b]ased on environmental fate laboratory studies, terrestrial field dissipation studies, available models, monitoring studies, and published literature, it can be concluded that endosulfan is a very persistent chemical which may stay in the environment for lengthy periods of time, particularly in acid media." The EPA also concluded, "[e]ndosulfan has relatively high potential to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioaccumulate" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">bioaccumulate</a> in fish."<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a> It is also toxic to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">amphibians</a>; low levels have been found to kill <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole" title="Tadpole" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">tadpoles</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-59" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[59]</a>In 2009, the committee of scientific experts of the Stockholm Convention concluded, "endosulfan is likely, as a result of long range environmental transport, to lead to significant adverse human health and environmental effects such that global action is warranted."<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-60" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[60]</a> In May 2011, the Stockholm Convention committee approved the recommendation for elimination of production and use of endosulfan and its isomers worldwide. This is, however, subject to certain exemptions. Overall, this will lead to its elimination from the global markets.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-UNEP-61" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[61]</a><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Status by region</h2><div>...</div><div>In the United States, endosulfan is only registered for agricultural use, and these uses are being phased out.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-EPA2010-7" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[7]</a> It has been used extensively on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">cotton</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Potatoes" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">potatoes</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomatoes" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">tomatoes</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apples" class="mw-redirect" title="Apples" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">apples</a> according to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">EPA</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-88" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[88]</a> The EPA estimates that 626 thousand kg of endosulfan were used annually from 1987 to 1997.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-RED-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a> The US exported more than 140,000 lb of endosulfan from 2001 to 2003, mostly to Latin America,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-Smith-89" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[89]</a> but production and export has since stopped.In California, endosulfan contamination from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley" title="San Joaquin Valley" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">San Joaquin Valley</a> has been implicated in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_extinction" title="Local extinction" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">extirpation</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_yellow-legged_frog" title="" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">mountain yellow-legged frog</a> from parts of the nearby <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Nevada(U.S.)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Nevada (U.S.)" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Sierra Nevada</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid15378994-90" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[90]</a> In Florida, levels of contamination the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Everglades</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscayne_Bay" title="Biscayne Bay" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Biscayne Bay</a> are high enough to pose a threat to some aquatic organisms.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid18642080-91" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[91]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-pmid18642079-92" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[92]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-93" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[93]</a>In 2007, the EPA announced it was rereviewing the safety of endosulfan.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-94" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[94]</a> The following year, Pesticide Action Network and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council" title="Natural Resources Defense Council" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">NRDC</a> petitioned the EPA to ban endosulfan,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-95" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[95]</a> and a coalition of environmental and labor groups sued the EPA seeking to overturn its 2002 decision to not ban endosulfan.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-suit-29" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[29]</a> In June 2010, the EPA announced it was negotiating a phaseout of all uses with the sole US manufacturer, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhteshim_Agan" class="mw-redirect" title="Makhteshim Agan" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Makhteshim Agan</a>, and a complete ban on the compound.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-EPA2010-7" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[7]</a>An official statement by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhteshim_Agan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioaccumulation" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Makhteshim Agan</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" title="North America" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">North America</a> (MANA) states, "From a scientific standpoint, MANA continues to disagree fundamentally with EPA's conclusions regarding endosulfan and believes that key uses are still eligible for re-registration." The statement adds, "However, given the fact that the endosulfan market is quite small and the cost of developing and submitting additional data high, we have decided to voluntarily negotiate an agreement with EPA that provides growers with an adequate time frame to find alternatives for the damaging insect pests currently controlled by endosulfan."<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-96" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[96]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-97" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[97]</a>...Brazil decreed total ban of the substance from July 31, 2013, being forbidden imports of the product from July 31, 2011, date in which national production and utilization begins to be phased out gradually.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosulfan#cite_note-103" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[103]</a></div></div><div>=</div>===</div>