Barre

<div>terry g js... Museveni in Uganda. Before him, their key man for Africa was a guy named Siad Barre of Somalia, for whom Chuck Grassley became a kind of defacto lobbyist as the United States pumped up his military, which he then used to absolutely destroy his country to such an effect that Somalia has never recovered and today is a haven for al-Qaida, for terrorism, for piracy. It's a lawless nation. The Family says that's part of God's plan.</div><div>
<div>website (<a href="http://www.firethelobbyists.com/" target="blank" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">firethelobbyists.com</a>) has been created by Campaign Money Watch, to convince Senator McCain to fire three lobbyists working on his campaign that have ties to ruthless dictators. You may recall that over the past two days,<a href="http://agonist.org/schecter/?p=9867" target="blank" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">two McCain aides have resigned</a> because of their willingness to do public relations work for the <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Burma" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Burmese Junta</a>.

It turns out that they have friends in low places, however. I contacted David Donnelly, Director of <a href="http://www.campaignmoney.org/" target="blank" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Campaign Money Watch</a>, for a comment, and what he had to say explains what his group is trying to accomplish:
<blockquote style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">"John McCain ought to immediately fire three lobbyists — Charlie Black, Tom Loeffler, and Peter Madaigan -- whose lobbying for brutal dictators and foreign governments is every bit as bad as the two lobbyists who left his campaign over the weekend. Frankly, McCain's campaign is turning out to be an effort of, by, and for these types of Washington influence peddlers. His credentials as a reformer are gone."</blockquote>Pretty strong words. Yet, if you read what these men have been up to, perhaps not strong enough. <a name="gname">It ain't pretty:
</a>Charlie Black, McCain's senior counsel and spokesman, began his lobbying career by representing numerous dictators and repressive regimes:
<blockquote><a name="more">Black's firm represented the governor of Philippines dictator Ferdinand Marcos. According to a 1985 report, the firm Black, Manafort & Stone earned $950,000 plus expenses for its work to provide "advice and assistance on matters relating to the media, public relations and public affairs interests."1</a>

Black's firm lobbied on behalf of Mobuto Sese Seko of Zaire, earning $1 million a year for his efforts.2

Black's firm lobbied on behalf of Somali dictator Mohamed Siad Barre.3

Black's firm represented Nigerian dictator Ibrahim Babangida, earning at least $1 million for his efforts.4

Black's firm has represented Equatorial Guinea, an oil-rich state "best known for the outlandish brutality of its rulers."5

Black represented Angolan rebel and "classical terrorist" Jonas Savimbi, a job that earned him $600,000.6 "We have to call him Africa's classical terrorist," Makau Mutua, a professor of law and Africa specialist told the New York Times. "In the history of the continent, I think he's unique because of the degree of suffering he caused without showing any remorse."7

In recent years his client list has also included the Iraqi National Congress8, Friends of Blackwater9, and the China National Off-Shore Oil Corp.10

Since 2005, BKSH has received more than $700,000 in fees from foreign entities.11</blockquote>Thomas Loeffler, co-chairman of McCain's campaign, has represented the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia:
<blockquote style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia paid the Loeffler Group "a whopping $7.9 million from December 1, 2005, though November 2006 -- the largest fee collected from a foreign government by any lobbying firm in 2006," according to National Journal.12 The Washington Times reported that "Mr. Loeffler's firm has received more than $10 million since 2006 from the Saudi Embassy and the Ministry of Commerce & Industry of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia."13 Much of this work was centered on gaining admission for the Kingdom to the World Trade Organization.14
Since 2005, according to the Washington Times, "the Loeffler Group reported more than $11 million in fees from foreign lobbying clients."15</blockquote>Peter Madigan, a leading McCain fundraiser, lobbies on behalf of the king of Dubai:
<blockquote face="trebuchet ms" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Madigan has earned upwards of $800,000 to improve the United Arab Emirates' reputation in the face of a class action lawsuit over the enslavement of boy camel jockeys.16</blockquote>You may also remember our story on Charlie Black the other day, regarding his involvement in setting up an anti-Christian ceremony for the Reverend Sun Myung Moon, a man who is not only a felon <a href="http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?articleId=9868" style="text-decoration: none; line-height: 16.3799991607666px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">but in league with Kim Jong-Il of North Korea</a>. Pleasant company to be sure. And it is only the tip of the iceberg. In <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Real-McCain-Conservatives-Independents-Shouldnt/dp/0979482291/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210620847&sr=8-1" style="text-decoration: none; line-height: 16.3799991607666px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The Real McCain</a>, I have two chapters outlining McCain's sordid associations. People who make Jeremiah Wright look like a Red Cross worker. Guest contributor Cliff Schecter is the author of <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Real-McCain-Conservatives-Independents-Shouldnt/dp/0979482291/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210782099&sr=1-1" target="blank" style="text-decoration: none;">The Real McCain</a> and runs <a href="http://cliffschecter.firedoglake.com/" target="blank" style="text-decoration: none;">Cliff Schecter's Campaign Silo</a> at Firedoglake. LABELS: <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Charlie%20Black" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">CHARLIE BLACK</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Burma" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">BURMA</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Lobbyists" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">LOBBYISTS</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Thomas%20Loeffler" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">THOMAS LOEFFLER</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Peter%20Madigan" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">PETER MADIGAN</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/John%20McCain" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">JOHN MCCAIN</a>,<a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Myanmar" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">MYANMAR</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Politics" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">POLITICS</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Reuters" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">REUTERS</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/Cliff%20Schecter" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">CLIFF SCHECTER</a>, <a href="http://www.the-environmentalist.org/search/label/The%20Real%20McCain" style="text-decoration: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">THE REAL MCCAIN</a></div><div>
<div>wiki</div><div>
</div><div>Mohamed Siad Barre (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali</a>: Maxamed Siyaad Barre; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Arabic</a>: محمد سياد بري‎; October 6, 1919 – January 2, 1995) was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">military dictator</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-2" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">[2]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-3" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">[3]</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President" title="President" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">President</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali Democratic Republic</a> from 1969 to 1991. During his rule, he styled himself as Jaalle Siyaad ("Comrade Siad").<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-4" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[4]</a>At the time of independence in 1960, Somalia was touted in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">West</a> as the model of a democracy in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" title="Africa" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Africa</a>. However, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clans_of_Somalia" title="Clans of Somalia" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">clanism</a> and extended family loyalties and conflicts were social problems the civilian government failed to eradicate and eventually succumbed to itself.The Barre-led <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_junta" title="Military junta" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">military junta</a> that came to power after a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">coup d'état</a> in 1969 said it would adapt <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">scientific socialism</a> to the needs of Somalia. It drew heavily from the traditions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">China</a>. Volunteer labour harvested and planted crops, and built roads and hospitals. Almost all industry, banks and businesses were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalisation" title="Nationalisation" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">nationalised</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_cooperative" title="Agricultural cooperative" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">cooperative farms</a> were promoted. The government forbade clanism and stressed loyalty to the central authorities. A new <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_alphabet" title="Somali alphabet" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">writing script</a> for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali language</a> was also adopted. To spread the new language and the methods and message of the revolution, secondary schools were closed in 1974 and 25,000 students from fourteen to sixteen years of age and an additional 3,000 military and civil service employees were sent to rural areas to educate their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">nomadic</a> relatives.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-apostolopoulos-5" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">[5]</a>After 20 years of military rule, Barre's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a> was eventually forced from power in the early 1990s by a coalition of armed opposition groups. He died in political exile in 1995, but was returned to Somalia for burial in his home region.
<div id="toc" class="toc" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 7px; display: table; zoom: 1; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249);"><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; border: none; display: inline; line-height: 1.3; background: none;">Contents</h2>  [<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#" id="togglelink" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">hide</a>] </div><ul style="line-height: 1.6; list-style-type: none; margin: 0.3em 0px; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Early_years" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">1 Early years</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Seizure_of_power" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">2 Seizure of power</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Presidency" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3 Presidency</a><ul style="line-height: 1.6; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Supreme_Revolutionary_Council" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.1 Supreme Revolutionary Council</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Language_and_anti-clanism" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.2 Language and anti-clanism</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Nationalism_and_Greater_Somalia" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.3 Nationalism and Greater Somalia</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Foreign_relations" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.4 Foreign relations</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Domestic_programs" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.5 Domestic programs</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Economic_policies" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.6 Economic policies</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Car_collision" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.7 Car collision</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Human_rights_abuse_allegations" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.8 Human rights abuse allegations</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Rebellion_and_ouster" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">3.9 Rebellion and ouster</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Death" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">4 Death</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Honours" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">5 Honours</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#See_also" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">6 See also</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Notes" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">7 Notes</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#References" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">8 References</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#Bibliography" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">9 Bibliography</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#External_links" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">10 External links</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); line-height: 1.3; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Early years[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early years" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h2>Mohamed Siad Barre was born as a member of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marehan" title="Marehan" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Marehan</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darod" title="Darod" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Darod</a> clan (sub-clan Rer Dini) near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shilavo" title="Shilavo" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Shilavo</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogaden" title="Ogaden" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Ogaden</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-LaitinSamatar-6" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[6]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Frankel-7" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[7]</a> His parents died when he was ten years old.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Frankel-7" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[7]</a>After receiving his primary education in the town of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luuq" title="Luuq" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Luuq</a> in southern Somalia, Barre moved to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Mogadishu</a>, the capital of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Italian Somaliland</a>, to pursue his secondary education.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Frankel-7" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[7]</a> Claiming to have been born in<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbahaarreey" title="Garbahaarreey" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Garbahaarreey</a> in order to qualify,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-LaitinSamatar-6" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[6]</a> he enrolled in the Italian colonial police as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapti%C3%A9" title="Zaptié" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Zaptié</a> in 1940.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-8" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[8]</a> He later joined the colonial police force during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">British</a> military administration of Somalia, rising to the highest possible<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">rank</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Frankel-7" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[7]</a>In 1950, shortly after Italian Somaliland became a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Trust_Territories" title="United Nations Trust Territories" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">United Nations Trust Territory</a> under Italian administration, Barre attended the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carabinieri" title="Carabinieri" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Carabinieri</a> police school in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Italy</a> for two years.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Frankel-7" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[7]</a> Upon his return to Somalia, he remained with the military and eventually became Vice Commander of Somalia's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_Somalia" title="Military of Somalia" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Army</a> when the country gained its independence in 1960. After spending time with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Soviet</a> officers in joint training exercises in the early 1960s, Barre became an advocate of Soviet-style <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Marxist</a> government. He believed in a socialist government, and a stronger sense of nationalism.<h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); line-height: 1.3; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Seizure of power[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Seizure of power" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h2>In 1969, following the assassination of Somalia's second president, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdirashid_Ali_Shermarke" title="Abdirashid Ali Shermarke" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Abdirashid Ali Shermarke</a>, the military staged a coup on October 21 (the day after Shermarke's funeral), and took over office. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a> (SRC) that assumed power was led by Major General Barre, Lieutenant Colonel <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaad_Gabeyre_Kediye" title="Salaad Gabeyre Kediye" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Salaad Gabeyre Kediye</a> and Chief of Police <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jama_Korshel" title="Jama Korshel" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Jama Korshel</a>. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Adam-9" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[9]</a> The SRC subsequently renamed the country the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali Democratic Republic</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-10" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[10]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Grolierenc-11" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[11]</a> arrested members of the former government, banned political parties,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Metz3-12" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[12]</a> dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Pjdlfw-13" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[13]</a><h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); line-height: 1.3; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Presidency[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Presidency" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h2><div class="thumb tright" style="clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto; line-height: 22.3999996185303px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); padding: 3px; text-align: center; overflow: hidden; width: 222px; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249);"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg/220px-Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg/330px-Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg/440px-Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1267" data-file-height="892" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; display: block; text-indent: 15px; white-space: nowrap; overflow: hidden; width: 15px; height: 11px; -webkit-user-select: none; background: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAA8AAAALCAAAAACFLIiAAAAAAnRSTlMA/1uRIrUAAAACYktHRAD/h4/MvwAAAAlwSFlzAAAK8AAACvABQqw0mAAAAAd0SU1FB9UEAhIREfdlPYsAAABPSURBVAjXY/j///+5vXDwjAHIr26ZAgXZe8H8a/+hoIcw/9nevdVL9+79DuPvzQYZFPUezu8BMZLXgkExnD8HAu6hqv//n+HZVjD4DuUDAKlChD3fj6aPAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC) 50% 50% no-repeat;" /></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muhammad_Siad_Barre-40866X9X9.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; display: block; text-indent: 15px; white-space: nowrap; overflow: hidden; width: 15px; height: 11px; -webkit-user-select: none; background: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAA8AAAALCAAAAACFLIiAAAAAAnRSTlMA/1uRIrUAAAACYktHRAD/h4/MvwAAAAlwSFlzAAAK8AAACvABQqw0mAAAAAd0SU1FB9UEAhIREfdlPYsAAABPSURBVAjXY/j///+5vXDwjAHIr26ZAgXZe8H8a/+hoIcw/9nevdVL9+79DuPvzQYZFPUezu8BMZLXgkExnD8HAu6hqv//n+HZVjD4DuUDAKlChD3fj6aPAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC) 50% 50% no-repeat;">Barre with </a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> in 1976</div></div></div>Styled the "Victorious Leader" (Guulwade), Siad Barre fostered the growth of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">personality cult</a>. Portraits of him in the company of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Marx</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Lenin</a> lined the streets on public occasions.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Metz2-14" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[14]</a> He advocated a form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">scientific socialism</a> based on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an" title="Qur'an" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Qur'an</a> and Marx, with heavy influences of Somali nationalism.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Supreme Revolutionary Council<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Supreme Revolutionary Council" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>The Supreme Revolutionary Council established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">literacy</a> campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Arab world</a>, eventually joining the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Arab League</a> (AL) in 1974.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Frankel-7" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[7]</a> That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_African_Unity" title="Organization of African Unity" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Organization of African Unity</a> (OAU), the predecessor of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">African Union</a> (AU).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Yang-15" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[15]</a>In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Revolutionary_Socialist_Party" title="Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party</a> (SRSP), a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionism(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">adapting</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Marxist</a> precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" title="Communism" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">communist</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Pjdlfw-13" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[13]</a>A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">politburo</a> continued to rule.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Grolierenc-11" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[11]</a> In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Pjdlfw-13" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[13]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Language and anti-clanism<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Language and anti-clanism" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>One of the first and principal objectives of the revolutionary regime was the adoption of a standard national writing system. Shortly after coming to power, Barre introduced the Somali language (Af Soomaali) as the official language of education, and selected the modified <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_alphabet" title="Somali alphabet" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Latin script</a> developed by the Somali linguist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire_Jama_Ahmed" title="Shire Jama Ahmed" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Shire Jama Ahmed</a> as the nation's standard <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">orthography</a>. From then on, all education in government schools had to be conducted in Somali, and in 1972, all government employees were ordered to learn to read and write Somali within six months. The reason given for this was to decrease a growing rift between those who spoke the colonial languages, and those who did not, as many of the high ranking positions in the former government were given to people who spoke either Italian or English.Additionally, Barre also sought to eradicate the importance of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Somalia" title="Demographics of Somalia" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">clan</a> (qabil) affiliation within government and civil society. The inevitable first question that Somalis asked one another when they met was, 'What is your clan?'. When this was considered anathema to the purpose of a modern state, Somalis began to pointedly ask, 'What is your ex-clan?'. Barre outlawed this question and a broad range of other activities classified as clanism. Informers reported qabilists to the government, leading to arrests and imprisonment.On a more symbolic level Barre had repeated a number of times, 'Whom do you know? is changed to: What do you know?', and this incantation became part of a popular street song.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-laitin-16" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[16]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Nationalism and Greater Somalia<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nationalism and Greater Somalia" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>Barre advocated the concept of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Greater Somalia</a> (Soomaaliweyn), which refers to those regions in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Horn of Africa</a> in which ethnic Somalis reside and have historically represented the predominant population. Greater Somalia thus encompasses Somalia, the republic of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Djibouti</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogaden" title="Ogaden" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Ogaden</a> (in modern day <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Ethiopia</a>) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Eastern_Province(Kenya)" title="North Eastern Province (Kenya)" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">North Eastern Province</a> (in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Kenya</a>) i.e. the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited regions of the Horn of Africa.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-17" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[17]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-18" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[18]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-19" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[19]</a> In July 1977, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Ogaden War</a> broke out after the government sought to incorporate the various Somali-inhabited territories of the region into a Greater Somalia. The Somali national army invaded the Ogaden and was successful at first, capturing most of the territory. The invasion reached an abrupt end with the Soviet Union's shift of support to Ethiopia, followed by almost the entire communist world siding with the latter. The Soviets halted their previous supplies to Barre's regime and increased the distribution of aid, weapons, and training to the Ethiopian government, and also brought in around 15,000 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Cuban</a> troops to assist the Ethiopian regime. In 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Foreign relations<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Foreign relations" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>Control of Somalia was of great interest to both the Soviet Union and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">United States</a> due to the country's strategic location at the mouth of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Red Sea</a>. After the Soviets broke with Barre in the late 1970s, he subsequently expelled all Soviet advisers, tore up his friendship treaty with the Soviet Union, and switched allegiance to the West. The United States stepped in and until 1989, was a strong supporter of the Barre government for whom it provided approximately <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">US$</a>100 million per year in economic and military aid.On October 17 and October 18, 1977, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a> (PFLP) group hijacked <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufthansa_Flight_181" title="Lufthansa Flight 181" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Lufthansa Flight 181</a> to Mogadishu, Somalia, holding 86 hostages. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">West German</a> Chancellor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Schmidt" title="Helmut Schmidt" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Helmut Schmidt</a>and Barre negotiated a deal to allow a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSG_9" title="GSG 9" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">GSG 9</a> anti-terrorist unit into Mogadishu to free the hostages.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Domestic programs<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Domestic programs" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>During the first five years Barre's government set up several cooperative farms and factories of mass production such as mills, sugar cane processing facilities in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jowhar" title="Jowhar" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Jowhar</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afgooye" title="Afgooye" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Afgooye</a>, and a meat processing house in<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Kismayo</a>.Another public project initiated by the government was the Shalanbood Sanddune Stoppage. From 1971 onwards, a massive tree-planting campaign on a nationwide scale was introduced by Barre's administration to halt the advance of thousands of acres of wind-driven <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_dune" title="Sand dune" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">sand dunes</a> that threatened to engulf towns, roads and farm land.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Natgeosoc159-20" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[20]</a> By 1988, 265 hectares of a projected 336 hectares had been treated, with 39 range reserve sites and 36 forestry plantation sites established.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Hadden-21" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[21]</a>Between 1974 and 1975, a major <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought" title="Drought" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">drought</a> referred to as the Abaartii Dabadheer ("The Lingering Drought") occurred in the northern regions of Somalia. The Soviet Union, which at the time maintained strategic relations with the Barre government, airlifted some 90,000 people from the devastated regions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobyo" title="Hobyo" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Hobyo</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caynaba" title="Caynaba" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Caynaba</a>. New settlements of small villages were created in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubbada_Hoose" title="Jubbada Hoose" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Jubbada Hoose</a> (Lower Jubba) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubbada_Dhexe" title="Jubbada Dhexe" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Jubbada Dhexe</a>(Middle Jubba) regions. These new settlements were known as the Danwadaagaha or "Collective Settlements". The transplanted families were introduced to farming and fishing, a change from their traditional pastoralist lifestyle of livestock herding. Other such resettlement programs were also introduced as part of Barre's effort to undercut clan solidarity by dispersing nomads and moving them away from clan-controlled land.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Economic policies<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Economic policies" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>As part of Barre's socialist policies, major industries and farms were nationalised, including banks, insurance companies and oil distribution farms.By the mid-to-late-1970s, public discontent with the Barre regime was increasing, largely due to corruption among government officials as well as poor economic performance. The Ogaden War had also weakened the Somali army substantially and military spending had crippled the economy. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_debt" title="External debt" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Foreign debt</a> increased faster than export earnings, and by the end of the decade, Somalia's debt of 4 billion <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_shilling" title="Somali shilling" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">shillings</a> equalled the earnings from seventy-five years' worth of banana exports.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Metz2-14" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">[14]</a>By 1978, manufactured goods exports were almost non-existent, and with the lost support of the Soviet Union the Barre government signed a structural adjustment agreement with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF) during the early 1980s. This included the abolishment of some government monopolies and increased public investment. This and a second agreement were both cancelled by the mid-1980s, as the Somali army refused to accept a proposed 60 percent cut in military spending. New agreements were made with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Club" title="Paris Club" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Paris Club</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Development_Association" title="International Development Association" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">International Development Association</a> and the IMF during the second half of the 1980s. This ultimately failed to improve the economy which deteriorated rapidly in 1989 and 1990, and resulted in nationwide commodity shortages.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Car collision<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Car collision" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>In May 1986, President Barre suffered serious injuries in a life-threatening automobile collision near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Woinffir-22" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[22]</a> He was treated in a hospital in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Saudi Arabia</a> for head injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Photw-23" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[23]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Sahrisr-24" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[24]</a> Lieutenant General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Ali_Samatar" title="Mohamed Ali Samatar" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Mohamed Ali Samatar</a>, then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Although Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on December 23, 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in addition to Barre's Vice President Lt. Gen. Samatar.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Woinffir-22" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[22]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Photw-23" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[23]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Human rights abuse allegations<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Human rights abuse allegations" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>Part of Barre's time in power was characterized by oppressive dictatorial rule, including allegations of persecution, jailing and torture of political opponents and dissidents. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">United Nations Development Programme</a>stated that "the 21-year regime of Siyad Barre had one of the worst human rights records in Africa."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-25" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">[25]</a> The Africa Watch Committee wrote in a report that "both the urban population and nomads living in the countryside [were] subjected to summary killings, arbitrary arrest, detention in squalid conditions, torture, rape, crippling constraints on freedom of movement and expression and a pattern of psychological intimidation."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-26" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">[26]</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Amnesty International</a> went on to report that torture methods committed by Barre's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Service(Somalia)" title="National Security Service (Somalia)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">National Security Service</a> (NSS) included executions and "beatings while tied in a contorted position, electric shocks, rape of woman prisoners, simulated executions and death threats." <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-27" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">[27]</a>In September 1970, the government introduced the National Security Law No. 54, which granted the NSS the power to arrest and detain indefinitely those who expressed critical views of the government, without ever being brought to trial. It further gave the NSS the power to arrest without a warrant anyone suspected of a crime involving "national security". Article 1 of the law prohibited "acts against the independence, unity or security of the State", and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">capital punishment</a> was mandatory for anyone convicted of such acts.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-28" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[28]</a>From the late 1970s, and onwards Barre faced a shrinking popularity and increased domestic resistance. In response, Barre's elite unit, the Red Berets (Duub Cas), and the paramilitary unit called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_Pioneers" title="Victory Pioneers" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Victory Pioneers</a> carried out systematic terror against the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majeerteen" title="Majeerteen" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Majeerteen</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawiye" title="Hawiye" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Hawiye</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaaq" title="Isaaq" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Isaaq</a> clans.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Metz4-29" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 102);">[</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Metz4-29" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">29]</a> The Red Berets systematically smashed water reservoirs to deny water to the Majeerteen and Isaaq clans and their herds. More than 2,000 members of the Majeerteen clan died of thirst, and an estimated 5,000 Isaaq were killed by the government. Members of the Victory Pioneers also raped large numbers of Majeerteen and Isaaq women, and more than 300,000 Isaaq members fled to Ethiopia.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Metz5-30" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[30]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Metz6-31" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[31]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; border-bottom-style: none; line-height: 1.6; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Rebellion and ouster<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rebellion and ouster" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h3>After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign, Barre's administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in an abortive 1978 coup d'état.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Ararep-32" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[32]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Ahmed-33" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[33]</a> Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Npmc-34" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[34]</a> However, several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Fitzgerald-35" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[35]</a>A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">politburo</a> continued to rule.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Grolierenc-11" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[11]</a> In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Pjdlfw-13" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[13]</a> By that time, the moral authority of Barre's ruling Supreme Revolutionary Council had begun to weaken. Many Somalis were becoming disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was further weakened in the 1980s as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Cold War</a> drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">totalitarian</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">resistance movements</a>, supported by Ethiopia's communist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derg" title="Derg" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Derg</a> administration, sprang up across the country. This eventually led in 1991 to the outbreak of the civil war, the toppling of Barre's regime and the disbandment of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_Somalia" title="Military of Somalia" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali National Army</a> (SNA). Among the militia groups that led the rebellion were the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Salvation_Democratic_Front" title="Somali Salvation Democratic Front" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali Salvation Democratic Front</a> (SSDF), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Somali_Congress" title="United Somali Congress" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">United Somali Congress</a> (USC), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_National_Movement" title="Somali National Movement" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali National Movement</a> (SNM) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Patriotic_Movement" title="Somali Patriotic Movement" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali Patriotic Movement</a> (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Movement" title="Somali Democratic Movement" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali Democratic Movement</a> (SDM), the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factions_in_the_Somali_Civil_War#Somali_Democratic_Alliance_.28SDA.29" title="Factions in the Somali Civil War" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-color: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Somali Democratic Alliance</a> (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. In the south, armed factions led by USC commanders General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Farah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farah Aidid" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Mohamed Farah Aidid</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Mahdi_Mohamed" title="Ali Mahdi Mohamed" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Ali Mahdi Mohamed</a>, in particular, clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siad_Barre#cite_note-Lirs-36" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap; background: none;">[36]</a><h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); line-height: 1.3; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255);">Death[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siad_Barre&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Death" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">edit</a>]</h2>After leaving Mogadishu in January 1991, Barre temporarily remained in the southwestern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gedo" title="Gedo" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Gedo</a> region of the country, which was the power base of his Marehan clan. From there, he launched a military campaign to return to power. He twice attempted to retake Mogadishu, but in May 1991 was overwhelmed by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid's army, and was forced into exile.Barre initially moved to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairobi" title="Nairobi" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Nairobi</a>, Kenya, but opposition groups with a presence there protested his arrival and support of him by the Kenyan government. In response to the pressure and hostilities, he moved two weeks later to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria" style="text-decoration: none; background: none;">Nigeria</a>. Barre died on January 2, 1995 in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos" title="Lagos" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-size: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial;">Lagos</a> from a heart attack. He was buried in the Garbahaarreey district of the Gedo region in Somalia.</div><div>
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