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John Bardeen (/bɑːrˈdiːn/; May 23, 1908 – January 30, 1991)[3] was an American physicist and engineer. He is the only person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the transistor; and again in 1972 with Leon N. Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory of conventional superconductivity known as the BCS theory.[2][7]

The transistor revolutionized the electronics industry, making possible the development of almost every modern electronic device, from telephones to computers, and ushering in the Information Age. Bardeen's developments in superconductivity—for which he was awarded his second Nobel Prize—are used in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), medical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and superconducting quantum circuits.

Born and raised in Wisconsin, Bardeen received a Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University. After serving in World War II, he was a researcher at Bell Labs and a professor at the University of Illinois. In 1990, Bardeen appeared on Life magazine's list of "100 Most Influential Americans of the Century."[8]

Education and early life[]

Bardeen was born in Madison, Wisconsin, on May 23, 1908.[9] He was the son of Charles Bardeen, the first dean of the University of Wisconsin Medical School.

Bardeen attended University of Wisconsin High School in Madison. He graduated from the school in 1923 at age 15.[9] He could have graduated several years earlier, but this was postponed because he took courses at another high school and because of his mother's death. Bardeen entered the University of Wisconsin in 1923. While in college, he joined the Zeta Psi fraternity. The needed membership fees he raised partly by playing billiards. Bardeen was initiated as a member of Tau Beta Pi engineering honor society. Not wanting to be an academic like his father, Bardeen chose engineering. He also felt that engineering had good job prospects.[10]

Bardeen received his Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1928 from the University of Wisconsin.[11] Despite taking a year off to work in Chicago, he graduated in 1928.[12] Taking all the graduate courses in physics and mathematics that had interested him, Bardeen graduated in five years instead of the usual four. This allowed him time to complete his master's thesis, supervised by Leo J. Peters. He received his Master of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1929 from Wisconsin.[4][11]

Bardeen furthered his studies by staying on at Wisconsin, but he eventually went to work for Gulf Research Laboratories, the research arm of the Gulf Oil Corporation that was based in Pittsburgh.[8] From 1930 to 1933, Bardeen worked there on the development of methods for the interpretation of magnetic and gravitational surveys.[9] He worked as a geophysicist. After the work failed to keep his interest, he applied and was accepted to the graduate program in mathematics at Princeton University.[10]

As a graduate student, Bardeen studied mathematics and physics. Under physicist Eugene Wigner, he wrote his thesis on a problem in solid-state physics. Before completing his thesis, he was offered a position as Junior Fellow of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University in 1935. He spent the next three years there, from 1935 to 1938, working with to-be Nobel laureates in physics John Hasbrouck van Vleck and Percy Williams Bridgman on problems in cohesion and electrical conduction in metals,and also did some work on level density of nuclei. He received his Ph.D. in mathematical physics from Princeton in 1936.[9]

Career and research[]

World War II service[]

From 1941 to 1944, Bardeen headed the group working on magnetic mines and torpedoes and mine and torpedo countermeasures at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory. During this period, his wife Jane gave birth to a son (Bill, born in 1941) and a daughter (Betsy, born in 1944).[13]

Bell Labs[]

John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs, 1948

In October 1945, Bardeen began work at Bell Labs as a member of a solid-state physics group led by William Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan. Other personnel working in the group were Walter Brattain, physicist Gerald Pearson, chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and several technicians. He moved his family to Summit, New Jersey.[14]

The assignment of the group was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass vacuum tube amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments mysteriously failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked surface states that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states, meeting almost daily to discuss the work. The rapport of the group was excellent and ideas were freely exchanged.[15]

By the winter of 1946, they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to Physical Review. Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments.

The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with electrolytes. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily and suggested that they use glycol borate (gu), a viscous chemical that did not evaporate. Finally, they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley,[16] put a voltage on a droplet of gu placed across a p–n junction.

Invention of the transistor[]

Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor

A stylized replica of the first transistor invented at Bell Labs on December 23, 1947

On December 23, 1947, Bardeen and Brattain were working without Shockley when they succeeded in creating a point-contact transistor that achieved amplification. By the next month, Bell Labs' patent attorneys started to work on the patent applications.[17]

Bell Labs' attorneys soon discovered that Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and patented in 1930 by Julius Lilienfeld, who filed his MESFET-like patent in Canada on October 22, 1925.[18]

Shockley publicly took the lion's share of the credit for the invention of the transistor; this led to a deterioration of Bardeen's relationship with him.[19] Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Shockley eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, essentially blocking the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention.[20][21]

The "transistor" (a portmanteau of "transconductance" and "resistor") was 1/50 the size of the vacuum tubes it replaced in televisions and radios, used far less power, was far more reliable, and it allowed electrical devices to become more compact.[8]

University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign[]

A commemorative plaque remembering John Bardeen and the theory of superconductivity, at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

By 1951, Bardeen was looking for a new job. Fred Seitz, a friend of Bardeen, convinced the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign to make Bardeen an offer of $10,000 a year. Bardeen accepted the offer and left Bell Labs,[17] joining the engineering and physics faculties at Illinois in 1951, where he was Professor of Electrical Engineering and of Physics.[5]

At Illinois, he established two major research programs, one in the Electrical Engineering Department and one in the Physics Department. The research program in the Electrical Engineering Department dealt with both experimental and theoretical aspects of semiconductors, and the research program in the Physics Department dealt with theoretical aspects of macroscopic quantum systems, particularly superconductivity and quantum liquids.[22]

He was an active professor at Illinois from 1951 to 1975 and then became professor emeritus.[8] In his later life, Bardeen remained active in academic research, during which time he focused on understanding the flow of electrons in charge density waves (CDWs) through metallic linear chain compounds. His proposals[23][24][25] that CDW electron transport is a collective quantum phenomenon (see Macroscopic quantum phenomena) were initially greeted with skepticism.[26]

However, experiments reported in 2012[27] show oscillations in CDW current versus magnetic flux through tantalum trisulfide rings, similar to the behavior of superconducting quantum interference devices (see SQUID and Aharonov–Bohm effect), lending credence to the idea that collective CDW electron transport is fundamentally quantum in nature.[28][29] (See quantum mechanics.) Bardeen continued his research throughout the 1980s, and published articles in Physical Review Letters[30] and Physics Today[31] less than a year before he died.

A collection of Bardeen's personal papers are held by the University of Illinois Archives.[32]

Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956[]

In 1956, John Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with William Shockley of Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments and Walter Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".[33]

At the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm, Brattain and Shockley received their awards that night from King Gustaf VI Adolf. Bardeen brought only one of his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony. King Gustav chided Bardeen because of this, and Bardeen assured the King that the next time he would bring all his children to the ceremony. He kept his promise.[34]

BCS theory[]

Main article: BCS theory

In 1957, Bardeen, in collaboration with Leon Cooper and his doctoral student John Robert Schrieffer, proposed the standard theory of superconductivity known as the BCS theory (named for their initials).[8]

Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972[]

In 1972, Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Leon N Cooper of Brown University and John Robert Schrieffer of the University of Pennsylvania "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory".[35] This was Bardeen's second Nobel Prize in Physics. He became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in the same field.[36] Only four others have ever received more than one Nobel Prize.[37]

Bardeen brought his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm.[34] Bardeen gave much of his Nobel Prize money to fund the Fritz London Memorial Lectures at Duke University.[38]

He is the only double laureate in physics, and one of three double laureates of the same prize; the others are Frederick Sanger who won the 1958 and 1980 Prizes in Chemistry and Karl Barry Sharpless who won the 2001 and 2022 Prizes in chemistry.[39]

Other awards[]

In addition to being awarded the Nobel prize twice, Bardeen has numerous other awards including:

Xerox[]

Bardeen was also an important adviser to Xerox Corporation. Though quiet by nature, he took the uncharacteristic step of urging Xerox executives to keep their California research center, Xerox PARC, afloat when the parent company was suspicious that its research center would amount to little.

Personal life[]

Bardeen married Jane Maxwell on July 18, 1938. While at Princeton, he met Jane during a visit to his old friends in Pittsburgh.

Bardeen was a scientist with a very unassuming personality. While he served as a professor for almost 40 years at the University of Illinois, he was best remembered by neighbors for hosting cookouts where he would prepare food for his friends, many of whom were unaware of his accomplishments at the university. He would always ask his guests if they liked the hamburger bun toasted (since he liked his that way). He enjoyed playing golf and going on picnics with his family. Lillian Hoddeson said that because he "differed radically from the popular stereotype of 'genius' and was uninterested in appearing other than ordinary, the public and the media often overlooked him."[5]

When Bardeen was asked about his beliefs during a 1988 interview, he responded: "I am not a religious person, and so do not think about it very much". However, he has also said: "I feel that science cannot provide an answer to the ultimate questions about the meaning and purpose of life." Bardeen did believe in a code of moral values and behavior.[46] John Bardeen's children were taken to church by his wife, who taught Sunday school and was a church elder.[47] Despite this, he and his wife made it clear that they did not have faith in an afterlife and other religious ideas.[48] He was the father of James M. Bardeen.

Death[]

Bardeen died of heart disease at age 82 at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 30, 1991.[49] Although he lived in Champaign-Urbana, he had come to Boston for medical consultation.[8] Bardeen and his wife Jane (1907–1997) are buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, Madison, Wisconsin.[citation needed] They were survived by three children, James, William and Elizabeth Bardeen Greytak, and six grandchildren.[8]

Legacy[]

Near the end of this decade, when they begin enumerating the names of the people who had the greatest impact on the 20th century, the name of John Bardeen, who died last week, has to be near, or perhaps even arguably at, the top of the list ... Mr. Bardeen shared two Nobel Prizes and has been awarded numerous other honors. But what greater honor can there be when each of us can look all around us and everywhere see the reminders of a man whose genius has made our lives longer, healthier and better.

—Chicago Tribune editorial, February 3, 1991

In honor of Bardeen, the engineering quadrangle at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is named the Bardeen Quad.

Also in honor of Bardeen, Sony Corporation endowed a $3 million John Bardeen professorial chair at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, beginning in 1990.[49] Sony Corporation owed much of its success to commercializing Bardeen's transistors in portable TVs and radios, and had worked with Illinois researchers. As of 2022, the John Bardeen Professor is Yurii Vlasov.[50]

At the time of Bardeen's death, then-University of Illinois chancellor Morton Weir said, "It is a rare person whose work changes the life of every American; John's did."[36]

Bardeen was honored on a March 6, 2008, United States postage stamp as part of the "American Scientists" series designed by artist Victor Stabin. The $0.41 stamp was unveiled in a ceremony at the University of Illinois.[51] His citation reads: "Theoretical physicist John Bardeen (1908–1991) shared the Nobel Prize in Physics twice—in 1956, as co-inventor of the transistor and in 1972, for the explanation of superconductivity. The transistor paved the way for all modern electronics, from computers to microchips. Diverse applications of superconductivity include infrared sensors and medical imaging systems." The other scientists on the "American Scientists" sheet include biochemist Gerty Cori, chemist Linus Pauling and astronomer Edwin Hubble.

References...

Wikipedia

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John Bardeen

Achievements:  Twice co-winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics: for the joint invention of the transistor (1956), and for the development of the theory of superconductivity (1972).

Born: May 23, 1908; Madison, WI.

Died: January 30. 1991; Boston, Massachusetts (Aged 82)

Field & Discipline: Science; Physics; Physicist

Language: English

Father: Charles Russell Bardeen

Mother: Althea Harmer

Siblings: Thomas; William; Helen; one half-sister

Spouse: Jane Maxwell (m. 1938)

Children: James Maxwell; William Allen; Elizabeth Ann

Education: Madison elementary schools; University High School; Madison; Central High School (to 1923); University of Wisconsin (1924-29)

Major Work:

“Understanding Superconductivity” (1964)

Life & Times:

In 1945, Bardeen joined the Bell Telephone Laboratories at Murray Hill, New Jersey, where he was assigned to work with [collaborated with] Shockley* and [collaborated with] Brattain*, who had been studying the properties of semiconductors for many years.  Shockley and Brattain, among others, were convinced that the solution to the problem affecting existing electronic systems - which depended on bulky, fragile vacuum tubes that consumed large amounts of electrical power - lay in the use of semiconductors, such as silicon and germanium, that possess electrical resistance between that of insulators (such as rubber and plastics) and metal conductors, as devices that could rectify and amplify electrical signals.

During the late 1930s, the properties of semiconductors had been revealed with the discovery of the role of low concentrations of impurities in controlling the number of mobile charge carriers. Shockley had conceived of using semiconductors as amplifiers as early as 1939; his idea was to apply an external electric field to a semiconductor that would influence and control the flow of electrons in a region of the semiconductor, thereby modulating the current flowing through the device.

This, he believed, would create a device (later known as a field-effort transistor) that would be

capable of amplifying an electric signal because a small signal applied (applied voltage) would produce a large flow through the semiconductor - however, the war had intervened and six years later his team had not succeeded in producing a model along these lines that actually worked.

Bardeen studied the problem, and suggested that atoms (i.e. a layer of electrons) trapped on the surface of the semiconductor might be acting as a barrier to incoming electrical signals, preventing the material from behaving as Shockley had expected.

This idea led the team to approach the problem via an extensive study of the fundamental properties of the surface of semiconductors in electric fields, and resulted in 1947 in the construction by Bardeen and Brattain of the first working transistor.

This first working device was a point-contact transistor, in which two small wires (or "cat's whiskers,” called the emitter and collector) were attached to one end of a germanium block, serving as electrical contacts for the current, with a third wire as a contact at the bottom of the block (the base).

Instead of an externally applied electric field, the point-contact transistor used a small current flowing between the emitter and the base to control a larger current flowing from the emitter to the collector. In a later design, the junction transistor (1950), Bardeen and Brattain

eliminated the point contacts, and instead constructed the emitter and collector from semiconductor materials "doped" with small amounts of specific impurities that increased the density of "electrons and holes.”

(Shockley's field-effect transistors did not become practical until silicon replaced germanium as the base material for semiconductors).  Bardeen and Brattain's transistors function in a manner similar to vacuum tubes, as the transistor allows a very small signal in one circuit to control a relatively large current in another circuit. Because they are small, robust, relatively cheap to produce, and require a low amount of energy, they rapidly replaced vacuum tubes in all applications except those requiring the control of very large amounts of power, and entirely

revolutionized electronics, initiating the age of micro-miniature electronic parts.

For their work, the three Bell scientists were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in physics - Shockley for his fundamental theoretical work, and Bardeen and Brattain for producing a working model of Shockley's theory.

Meanwhile, in 1951 Bardeen had left Bell Labs in order to accept a dual appointment as Professor of Electrical Engineering and Physics at the University of Illinois, Urbana. Here he turned to the problem of superconductivity, which had been discovered by the Dutch physicist [influenced by] Kamerlingh Onnes* in 1911 when he observed that some metals lose much resistance to the flow of electricity when their temperature is lowered to a few degrees above absolute zero. This heightened conductivity derives from a free flow of electrons in the metal, but the surprising aspect of Onnes' discovery was that resistance completely disappeared when some thermal

vibration remained (i.e. when the temperature was above absolute zero).

This phenomenon held great promise for the electronics industry as a means of greatly reducing the huge amount of energy wasted in overcoming electrical resistance, but the practical problem posed by the necessary low temperature required for superconductivity remained (by 1951, the highest temperature at which superconductivity had been observed was still only about 20 degrees above absolute zero).

For years there was no explanation of this phenomenon, although in 1933-35 it was established by the German physicists Walther Meissner and Fritz London that superconductors are perfectly diamagnetic - i.e. they prevent the penetration of a magnetic field to their interior - and that this was in all probability a quantum effect somehow manifested by an entire body of material.

These ideas were given a degree of confirmation in 1950, when several American researchers discovered that isotopes of some metals would become superconductors at different temperatures, and that the critical temperature producing the effect was inversely proportional to the atomic

mass.

From previous studies, Bardeen knew that the only effect of different atomic masses on the properties of a solid body were variations in the propagation of vibrational motions within the body, and he therefore suggested that superconductivity of a metal might involve an interaction

between conduction of electrons (those relatively free to move as an electric current) and the vibration of the atoms in the metal body - and that this link (of the conductive electrons to atomic vibration) coupled the electrons to each other.

To test this theory, Bardeen established a research project at Illinois, to which he assigned a postdoctoral associate, Leon Cooper, and a graduate student, J. Robert Schrieffer, as his co-workers. In 1956, Cooper made an important discovery when he showed that an electron moving through a metal crystal attracts nearby positively charged atoms, slightly deforming the

crystal and momentarily increasing the concentration of positive charge.

This increased positive charge attracts a second electron, and the two electrons become paired, indirectly bound together through the local distortion of the crystal lattice. In this way, many electrons throughout the metal become joined into pairs (now known as "Cooper pairs"), but the

difficulty remained in showing how these pairs could be used to explain the free flow of all valence electrons in a superconductor.

In 1958, Bardeen, Schrieffer and Cooper were then able to show that the Cooper pairs interact to compel many of the free electrons in a superconductor to flow in unison - i.e. the superconducting electrons (as Fritz London had supposed) form a single quantum state that encompasses the

entire metal body - and that the critical temperature at which superconductivity appears represents the degree of reduction of thermal vibrations required to allow the influence of Cooper pairs to predominate in coordinating the movement of free electrons.

As the deviation of even one electron from the common stream would necessarily effect all others participating in superconduction, and thus destroy the integrity of the quantum state, such a disturbance becomes highly unlikely - instead, the superconducting electrons drift collectively with no loss of energy.

In 1958, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer used this remarkably complete theory (known as the BSC theory of superconductivity, in honour of its three creators) to predict superfluidity (the absence of viscosity and surface tension) in liquid helium 3 at temperatures near absolute zero, which was confirmed experimentally in 1962 - overthrowing the theory that superfluidity was impossible in isotopes with an odd number of nuclear particles.

In 1972, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer shared the Nobel Prize for physics for a theory which has had far-reaching effects on the theory of electronic technology, and has often been described as one of the most important developments in theoretical physics since quantum theory.

In particular, the development of materials that become superconducting at higher temperatures or withstand strong magnetic fields has made possible the construction of extremely powerful superconducting electromagnets, now used in the study of nuclear fusion, in magnetohydrodynamics, in high-energy particle accelerators, in frictionless trains lifted

magnetically above their rails, in biological and physical research on the interactions of atoms and electrons with strong magnetic fields, and in the construction of compact, powerful electric generators."

In 1959, Bardeen transferred to the Center for Advanced Study at the University of Illinois, where he continued his research in solid-state and low-temperature physics. On retiring in 1975 he was designated professor emeritus of physics.

Extra Connections:  Some of his work was anticipated by [anticipated by] Braun*

Assessment: His achievements have had far-reaching scientific and technological consequences.

Oneliner: John Bardeen, co-inventor of the transistor

Bibliography: