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Lawrence TE

Lawrence, Thomas Edward

ACHIEVEMENTS:

Central figure in Arab revolt against Turkey in World War I

NICKNAME/ALIAS:

Lawrence of Arabia

John Hume Ross

TE Shaw

DATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH:

15 August 1888, Tremadoc, Caernarvonshire, Wales

DATE AND PLACE OF DEATH AND AGE AT DEATH:

19 May 1935, Clouds Hill, Dorset, England. Aged 47

DISCIPLINE: Soldier, writer, archeological scholar

FIELD: Guerrilla warfare

EDUCATION:

High School, Oxford

Jesus College, Oxford

MAJOR WORK:

“The Seven Pillars of Wisdom” (1926)

LIFE AND TIMES:

After Oxford Lawrence joined an expedition excavating the Hittite city of Carchemish on the Euphrates under the direction of Woolley*. During the next three years, Lawrence spent his time on site and in Sinai; he learned to speak Arabic and he lived and dressed as an Arab. In the lead-up to World War I Lawrence and Woolley surveyed northern Sinai, under cover of being engaged in a scientific exploration of the area.

When Turkey entered the war against the Allies at the end of 1914, Lawrence transferred to Egypt with the rank of lieutenant to work in the British Intelligence Arab Bureau, gathering information about the Arabs under Turkish rule.  In January 1916 he wrote a secret memorandum entitled “The Politics of Mecca” in which he proposed that an Arab revolt against the Turks would benefit the British because it would help the destroy the Ottoman Empire. In October 1916 Lawrence joined Sir Ronald Storrs, the Oriental Secretary to the British High Commission, on a diplomatic mission to Arabia where the Hashemite Emir of Mecca, Hussein ibn ’Ali, had announced a revolt against the Arabs.

The Turks had reacted by installing a rival Hashemite, Ali Haidar. Hussein was an old man but he had four sons and the British were looking to them to provide strong leadership. Lawrence obtained permission from Storrs to travel to the neighborhood of Medina where the third son, Faisal, commanded Arab forces. He was immediately convinced that he had found the right man to lead the Arabs. Faisal had a passionate belief in the Arab cause, he was physically brave and, unlike his brothers, he spoke English.

Lawrence convinced his superiors in Cairo to back Faisal and he rejoined Faisal’s troops as a liaison officer. Lawrence obtained money and supplies for Faisal’s troops and together with Faisal he planned the guerilla tactics that enabled lightly-armed Arabs troops to cause maximum trouble to the Turks without having to confront them in pitched battle.  Their main aim was to disrupt the Hejaz railway which ran from Damascus in the north to Medina in the south. While Faisal established a headquarters at Wejh, a port on the Red Sea, Lawrence journeyed north, using gold and promises to win the backing of the local sheiks for Faisal’s dream of an Arab nation. He joined the Howaitat tribe in capturing Aqaba in July 1917, a victory which gave the Arabs control of the whole of Hejaz excepting Medina.

In the autumn of 1917 Lawrence began to collaborate with General Edmund Allenby, the new commander in chief in Palestine, in his plan to advance from Sinai via Jerusalem to Damascus. Lawrence continued to fight with the Arabs and engage in raiding parties. Wounded numerous times, he matched the Arabs with his endurance during long expeditions through the desert and his courage in action.

In November Lawrence was captured by Turks. According to his own account, he was savagely beaten and homosexually assaulted before making his escape. The details of this experience has been much debated by historians but what is certain is that Lawrence was psychologically traumatized and never fully recovered. In October 1918, he entered Damascus with the Arabs a few hours ahead of Allenby and the British army. Lawrence was exhausted and returned to England soon after.

He had been disillusioned by the lack of unity between the Arabs which he knew would prevent them from realizing their dream of one Arab nation. He was also sickened by the political carve-up embodied in the Anglo-French treaty by which Britain and France claimed Arab territory.  In London, he was received by King George V who was nonplussed when Lawrence refused to accept the military award of Distinguished Service Order or to be invested in the Order of the Bath. During the peace negotiations in Paris after the war, Lawrence promoted Arab independence and protested against the annexation of Syria and Lebanon by the French. His efforts were in vain despite the fact that Lawrence had become a famous figure after his exploits in Arabia had been publicized by the American journalist Lowell Thomas*.

Back in England, Lawrence began to write “The Seven Pillars of Wisdom”, his account of his Arabian experiences, and in his rooms at All Souls, Oxford, he entertained literary figures who included the poet Sassoon*. He was later painted by John* and Rothenstein*. In 1921 he acted as adviser on Arab affairs to Churchill*, the newly appointed Colonial Secretary, and he managed to obtain some concessions for the Arabs.After handing in the last chapters of his book in 1922, Lawrence set out to seek anonymity by joining the Royal Air Force as an enlisted man under the name John Hume Ross. He was discovered by the press and discharged in January 1923. In March of that year he enlisted as an army private in the Royal Tank Corps under the name T E Shaw.

He bought a cottage nearby in the Dorsetshire countryside and on the advice of friends, in particular Shaw*, he worked on a pared-down version of “The Seven Pillars of Wisdom” which was published in 1926.While continuing to serve in the ranks, Lawrence also wrote “The Mint” (1935), a fictionalized memoir of his experiences in the Royal Air Force, a prose version of the Odyssey, and numerous reviews and essays. He rode his motorbike through the country lanes to visit friends such as the Shaw’s, and the writers EM Forster*,Buchan* andThomas Hardy*.

In 1925 Buchan helped Lawrence to transfer back to the Royal Air Force and from 1927-29 Lawrence served in India until local unrest, combined with his reputation, meant he had to be hastily returned to England. For the remainder of his service career he worked on the development of rescue operations for airmen brought down over the sea.  He left the RAF in February 1935 and died after a fatal accident while riding his motor cycle in May of that year.

ASSESSMENT: Lawrence is remembered for his war service with the Arabs and has remained an enigmatic figure.

EXTRA CONNECTIONS: None

ONELINER: Lawrence of Arabia

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Stewart, Desmond, T E Lawrence, Hamish Hamilton, London, 1977.

LANGUAGE:

English

PARENTS:

Father: Sir Thomas Chapman

Mother: Sara Maden

SIBLINGS:

4 brothers

SPOUSE:

None

CHILDREN:

None

Wikipedia:

Middle East archaeology[edit]

At the age of 15, Lawrence and his schoolfriend Cyril Beeson bicycled around Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, visited almost every village's parish church, studied their monuments and antiquities, and made rubbings of their monumental brasses.[13] Lawrence and Beeson monitored building sites in Oxford and presented their finds to the Ashmolean Museum.[13]The Ashmolean's Annual Report for 1906 said the two teenage boys "by incessant watchfulness secured everything of antiquarian value which has been found".[13] In the summers of 1906 and 1907, Lawrence and Beeson toured France by bicycle, collecting photographs, drawings, and measurements of medieval castles.[13]

From 1907 to 1910, Lawrence studied History at Jesus College, Oxford.[14] In the summer of 1909, he set out alone on a three-month walking tour of crusadercastles in Ottoman Syria, during which he travelled 1,000 mi (1,600 km) on foot. Lawrence graduated with First Class Honours after submitting a thesis entitled The influence of the Crusades on European Military Architecture—to the end of the 12th century, based on his field research with Beeson in France,[13] notably inChâlus, and his solo research in the Middle East.[15]

On completing his degree in 1910, Lawrence commenced postgraduate research in medieval pottery with a Senior Demy, a form of scholarship, at Magdalen College, Oxford, which he abandoned after he was offered the opportunity to become a practising archaeologist in the Middle East. Lawrence was a polyglot whose published work demonstrates competence in Ancient Greek, Arabic, and French.

In December 1910, he sailed for Beirut and on arrival went to Jbail (Byblos), where he studied Arabic. He then went to work on the excavations at Carchemish, nearJerablus in northern Syria, where he worked under D. G. Hogarth and R. Campbell Thompson of the British Museum. He would later state that everything he had accomplished, he owed to Hogarth.[16] As the site lay near an important crossing on the Baghdad Railway, knowledge gathered there was of considerable importance to the military. While excavating ancient Mesopotamian sites, Lawrence met Gertrude Bell, who was to influence him during his time in the Middle East.

In late 1911, Lawrence returned to England for a brief sojourn. By November he was en route to Beirut for a second season at Carchemish, where he was to work with Leonard Woolley. Before resuming work there, however, he briefly worked withFlinders Petrie at Kafr Ammar in Egypt.

Lawrence continued making trips to the Middle East as a field archaeologist until the outbreak of World War I. In January 1914, Woolley and Lawrence were co-opted by the British military as an archaeological smokescreen for a British military survey of the Negev Desert. They were funded by the Palestine Exploration Fund to search for an area referred to in the Bible as the "Wilderness of Zin"; along the way, they undertook an archaeological survey of the Negev Desert. The Negev was of strategic importance, as it would have to be crossed by any Ottoman army attacking Egypt in the event of war. Woolley and Lawrence subsequently published a report of the expedition's archaeological findings,[17] but a more important result was an updated mapping of the area, with special attention to features of military relevance such as water sources. Lawrence also visited Aqaba and Petra.

From March to May 1914, Lawrence worked again at Carchemish. Following the outbreak of hostilities in August 1914, Lawrence did not immediately enlist in the British Army; on the advice of S.F. Newcombe he held back until October, when he was commissioned on the General List and immediately posted to the intelligence staff in Cairo.[citation needed]

Arab revolt[edit]

Lawrence at Rabigh, north ofJeddah, 1917

Main article: Arab Revolt

At the outbreak of the war Lawrence was a university post-graduate researcher who had for years travelled extensively within the Ottoman Empire provinces of the Levant (Transjordan and Palestine) and Mesopotamia (Syria and Iraq) under his own name. As such he had become known to the Ottoman Interior Ministry authorities and their German technical advisers, travelling on the German-designed, built, and financed railways during the course of his research.[18]

The Arab Bureau of Britain's Foreign Office conceived a campaign of internal insurgency against the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. The Arab Bureau had long felt it likely that a campaign instigated and financed by outside powers, supporting the breakaway-minded tribes and regional challengers to the Turkish government's centralised rule of their empire, would pay great dividends in the diversion of effort that would be needed to meet such a challenge. The Arab Bureau had recognised the strategic value of what is today called the "asymmetry" of such conflict. The Ottoman authorities would have to devote from a hundred to a thousand times the resources to contain the threat of such an internal rebellion compared to the Allies' cost of sponsoring it.

With his first-hand knowledge of Syria, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (not to mention having already worked as a part-time civilian army intelligence officer), on his formal enlistment in 1914 Lawrence was posted to Cairo on the Intelligence Staff of the GOC Middle East.[19] The British government in Egypt sent Lawrence to work with the Hashemite forces in the ArabianHejaz in October 1916.[20] There he met and worked with Herbert Garland.[21]

During the war, Lawrence fought alongside Arab irregular troops under the command of Emir Faisal, a son of Sherif Hussein of Mecca, in extended guerrillaoperations against the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire. Lawrence obtained assistance from the Royal Navy to turn back an Ottoman attack on Yanbu in December 1916.[20] Lawrence's major contribution to the revolt was convincing the Arab leaders (Faisal and Abdullah) to co-ordinate their actions in support of British strategy. He persuaded the Arabs not to make a frontal assault on the Ottoman stronghold in Medina but allow the Turkish army to tie up troops in the city garrison. The Arabs were then free to direct most of their attention to the Turks' weak point, the Hejaz railway that supplied the garrison. This vastly expanded the battlefield and tied up even more Ottoman troops, who were then forced to protect the railway and repair the constant damage. Lawrence developed a close relationship with Faisal, whose Arab Northern Army was to become the main beneficiary of British aid.[22]

Capture of Aqaba[edit]

Main article: Battle of Aqaba

In 1917, Lawrence arranged a joint action with the Arab irregulars and forces including Auda Abu Tayi (until then in the employ of the Ottomans) against the strategically located but lightly defended[23][24][25] town of Aqaba. On 6 July, after a surprise overland attack, Aqaba fell to Lawrence and the Arab forces. After Aqaba, Lawrence was promoted to major, and the new commander-in-chief of theEgyptian Expeditionary Force, General Sir Edmund Allenby, agreed to his strategy for the revolt, stating after the war:

"I gave him a free hand. His cooperation was marked by the utmost loyalty, and I never had anything but praise for his work, which, indeed, was invaluable throughout the campaign. He was the mainspring of the Arab movement and knew their language, their manners and their mentality."[26]

Lawrence now held a powerful position, as an adviser to Faisal and a person who had Allenby's confidence.

Battle of Tafileh[edit]

In January 1918, the battle of Tafileh, an important region southeast of the Dead Sea, was fought using Arab regulars under the command of Jafar Pasha al-Askari.[27] The battle was a defensive engagement that turned into an offensive rout and was described in the official history of the war as a "brilliant feat of arms".[27] Lawrence was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership at Tafileh and was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel.[27]

By the summer of 1918, the Turks were offering a substantial reward for Lawrence's capture, with one officer writing in his notes; "Though a price of £15,000 has been put on his head by the Turks, no Arab has, as yet, attempted to betray him. The Sharif of Mecca [King of the Hedjaz] has given him the status of one of his sons, and he is just the finely tempered steel that supports the whole structure of our influence in Arabia. He is a very inspiring gentleman adventurer."[27]

Fall of Damascus[edit]

Lawrence was involved in the build-up to the capture of Damascus in the final weeks of the war. Much to his disappointment, and contrary to instructions he had issued, he was not present at the city's formal surrender, having arrived several hours after the city had fallen. Lawrence entered Damascus around 9am on 1 October 1918 but was only the third arrival of the day; the first was the 10th Australian Light Horse Brigade, led by Major A.C.N. 'Harry' Olden who formally accepted the surrender of the city from acting Governor Emir Said.[28] In newly liberated Damascus—which he had envisaged as the capital of an Arab state—Lawrence was instrumental in establishing a provisional Arab government under Faisal. Faisal's rule as king, however, came to an abrupt end in 1920, after thebattle of Maysaloun, when the French Forces of General Gouraud, under the command of General Mariano Goybet, entered Damascus, destroying Lawrence's dream of an independent Arabia.

[](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T.E.Lawrence,_the_mystery_man_of_Arabia.jpg)

[](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T.E.Lawrence,_the_mystery_man_of_Arabia.jpg "Enlarge")

Portrait by Lowell Thomas

During the closing years of the war Lawrence sought, with mixed success, to convince his superiors in the British government that Arab independence was in their interests. The secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between France and Britain contradicted the promises of independence he had made to the Arabs and frustrated his work.[29]

In 1918, he cooperated with war correspondent Lowell Thomas for a short period. During this time Thomas and his cameraman Harry Chase shot a great deal of film and many photographs, which Thomas used in a highly lucrative film that toured the world after the war.

[Lowell Thomas] went to Jerusalem where he met Lawrence, whose enigmatic figure in Arab uniform fired his imagination. With Allenby's permission he linked up with Lawrence for a brief couple of weeks ... Returning to America, Thomas, early in 1919, started his lectures, supported by moving pictures of veiled women, Arabs in their picturesque robes, camels and dashing Bedouin cavalry, which took the nation by storm, after running at Madison Square Gardens in New York. On being asked to come to England, he made the condition he would do so if asked by the King and given Drury Lane or Covent Garden ... He opened at Covent Garden on 14 August 1919 ... And so followed a series of some hundreds of lectures--film shows, attended by the highest in the land ..."[30]

Postwar years[edit]

Lawrence returned to the United Kingdom a full Colonel.[32] Immediately after the war, Lawrence worked for the Foreign Office, attending the Paris Peace Conference between January and May as a member of Faisal's delegation. He served for much of 1921 as an advisor to Winston Churchill at the Colonial Office.

On 17 May 1919 the Handley Page Type O carrying Lawrence on a flight to Egypt crashed at the airport of Roma-Centocelle. The pilot and co-pilot were killed; Lawrence survived with a broken shoulder blade and two broken ribs.[33]During his brief hospitalisation, he was visited by King Victor Emmanuel III.[34]

In August 1919 Lowell Thomas launched a colourful photo show in London entitled With Allenby in Palestine which included a lecture, dancing, and music.[35] Initially, Lawrence played only a supporting role in the show, but when Thomas realised that it was the photos of Lawrence dressed as a Bedouin that had captured the public's imagination, he photographed him again, in London, in Arab dress.[35] With the new photos, Thomas re-launched his show as With Allenby in Palestine and Lawrence in Arabia in early 1920; it was extremely popular.[35] Thomas' shows made the previously-obscure Lawrence into a household name.[35]

In August 1922, Lawrence enlisted in the Royal Air Force as an aircraftman under the name John Hume Ross. At the RAF recruiting centre in Covent Garden, London, he was interviewed by a recruiting officer – Flying Officer W. E. Johns, later to be well known as the author of the Biggles series of novels.[36] Johns rejected Lawrence's application as he correctly believed "Ross" was a false name. Lawence admitted this was so and the documents he provided were false and left. But he returned some time later with an RAF Messenger, carrying a written order for Johns to accept Lawrence.[37]

However, Lawrence was forced out of the RAF in February 1923 after being exposed. He changed his name to T. E. Shaw and joined the Royal Tank Corps in 1923. He was unhappy there and repeatedly petitioned to rejoin the RAF, which finally readmitted him in August 1925.[38] A fresh burst of publicity after the publication of Revolt in the Desert (see below) resulted in his assignment to a remote base in British India in late 1926, where he remained until the end of 1928. At that time he was forced to return to Britain after rumours began to circulate that he was involved in espionage activities.

He purchased several small plots of land in Chingford, built a hut and swimming pool there, and visited frequently. This was removed in 1930 when the Chingford Urban District Council acquired the land and passed it to the City of London Corporation, but re-erected the hut in the grounds of The Warren, Loughton, where it remains, neglected, today. Lawrence's tenure of the Chingford land has now been commemorated by a plaque fixed on the sighting obelisk on Pole Hill.

He continued serving in the RAF based at Bridlington, East Riding of Yorkshire, specialising in high-speed boats and professing happiness, and it was with considerable regret that he left the service at the end of his enlistment in March 1935.

Lawrence was a keen motorcyclist, and, at different times, had owned eight Brough Superior motorcycles.[39][40] His eighth motorcycle is on display at the Imperial War Museum. Among the books Lawrence is known to have carried with him on his military campaigns is Thomas Malory's Morte D'Arthur. Accounts of the 1934 discovery of the Winchester Manuscript of the Morte include a report that Lawrence followed Eugene Vinaver—a Malory scholar—by motorcycle from Manchester to Winchester upon reading of the discovery in The Times.[41]

Death[edit]

At the age of 46, two months after leaving military service, Lawrence was fatally injured in an accident on his Brough Superior SS100 motorcycle in Dorset, close to his cottage, Clouds Hill, near Wareham. A dip in the road obstructed his view of two boys on their bicycles; he swerved to avoid them, lost control, and was thrown over the handlebars.[42] He died six days later on 19 May 1935.[42] The spot is marked by a small memorial at the side of the road.

Lawrence on a Brough SuperiorSS100

One of the doctors attending him was the neurosurgeon Hugh Cairns, who consequently began a long study of what he saw as the unnecessary loss of life by motorcycle dispatch riders through head injuries. His research led to the use ofcrash helmets by both military and civilian motorcyclists.[43]

Moreton estate, which borders Bovington Camp, was owned by Lawrence's cousins, the Frampton family. Lawrence had rented and later bought Clouds Hill from the Framptons. He had been a frequent visitor to their home, Okers Wood House, and had for years corresponded with Louisa Frampton. With his body wrapped in the Union Flag, Lawrence's mother arranged with the Framptons for him to be buried in their family plot at Moreton.[44][45] His coffin was transported on the Frampton estate's bier. Mourners included Winston and Clementine Churchill, E. M. Forster and Lawrence's youngest brother, Arnold.[46]

A bust of Lawrence was placed in the crypt at St Paul's Cathedral, London and a stone effigy by Eric Kennington remains in the Anglo-Saxon church of St Martin, Wareham in Dorset.[47]

Writings[edit]

Throughout his life, Lawrence was a prolific writer. A large portion of his output wasepistolary; he often sent several letters a day. Several collections of his letters have been published. He corresponded with many notable figures, including George Bernard Shaw, Edward Elgar, Winston Churchill, Robert Graves, Noël Coward, E. M. Forster, Siegfried Sassoon, John Buchan, Augustus John and Henry Williamson. He met Joseph Conrad and commented perceptively on his works. The many letters that he sent to Shaw's wife, Charlotte, are revealing as to his character.[48]

In his lifetime, Lawrence published three major texts. The most significant was his account of the Arab Revolt, Seven Pillars of Wisdom. Two were translations:Homer's Odyssey, and *The Forest Giant* — the latter an otherwise forgotten work of French fiction. He received a flat fee for the second translation, and negotiated a generous fee plus royalties for the first.

Further information: English translations of Homer § Lawrence

Seven Pillars of Wisdom[edit]

Lawrence's major work is Seven Pillars of Wisdom, an account of his war experiences. In 1919 he had been elected to a seven-year research fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford, providing him with support while he worked on the book. In addition to being a memoir of his experiences during the war, certain parts also serve as essays on military strategy, Arabian culture and geography, and other topics. Lawrence re-wrote Seven Pillars of Wisdom three times; once "blind" after he lost the manuscript while changing trains at Reading railway station.

The list of his alleged "embellishments" in Seven Pillars is long, though many such allegations have been disproved with time, most definitively in Jeremy Wilson's authorised biography. However Lawrence's own notebooks refute his claim to have crossed the Sinai Peninsula from Aqaba to the Suez Canal in just 49 hours without any sleep. In reality this famous camel ride lasted for more than 70 hours and was interrupted by two long breaks for sleeping which Lawrence omitted when he wrote his book.[49]

Lawrence acknowledged having been helped in the editing of the book by George Bernard Shaw. In the preface to Seven Pillars, Lawrence offered his "thanks to Mr. and Mrs. Bernard Shaw for countless suggestions of great value and diversity: and for all the present semicolons."

The first public edition was published in 1926 as a high-priced private subscription edition, printed in London by Herbert John Hodgson and Roy Manning Pike, with illustrations by Eric Kennington, Augustus John, Paul Nash, Blair Hughes-Stanton and his wife Gertrude Hermes. Lawrence was afraid that the public would think that he would make a substantial income from the book, and he stated that it was written as a result of his war service. He vowed not to take any money from it, and indeed he did not, as the sale price was one third of the production costs.[50] This, along with his "saintlike" generosity, left Lawrence in substantial debt.[51]

Revolt in the Desert[edit]

Revolt in the Desert was an abridged version of Seven Pillars, which he began in 1926 and was published in March 1927 in both limited and trade editions. He undertook a needed but reluctant publicity exercise, which resulted in a best-seller. Again he vowed not to take any fees from the publication, partly to appease the subscribers to Seven Pillars who had paid dearly for their editions. By the fourth reprint in 1927, the debt from Seven Pillars was paid off. As Lawrence left for military service in India at the end of 1926, he set up the "Seven Pillars Trust" with his friend D. G. Hogarth as a trustee, in which he made over the copyright and any surplus income of Revolt in the Desert. He later told Hogarth that he had "made the Trust final, to save myself the temptation of reviewing it, if Revolt turned out a best seller."

The resultant trust paid off the debt, and Lawrence then invoked a clause in his publishing contract to halt publication of the abridgment in the United Kingdom. However, he allowed both American editions and translations, which resulted in a substantial flow of income. The trust paid income either into an educational fund for children of RAF officers who lost their lives or were invalided as a result of service, or more substantially into the RAF Benevolent Fund.

Posthumous[edit]

Lawrence left unpublished The Mint,[52] a memoir of his experiences as an enlisted man in the Royal Air Force (RAF). For this, he worked from a notebook that he kept while enlisted, writing of the daily lives of enlisted men and his desire to be a part of something larger than himself: the Royal Air Force. The book is stylistically very different from Seven Pillars of Wisdom, using sparse prose as opposed to the complicated syntax found in Seven Pillars. It was published posthumously, edited by his brother, Professor A. W. Lawrence.

After Lawrence's death, A. W. Lawrence inherited Lawrence's estate and his copyrights as the sole beneficiary. To pay the inheritance tax, he sold the U.S. copyright of Seven Pillars of Wisdom (subscribers' text) outright to Doubleday Doran in 1935. Doubleday still controls publication rights of this version of the text ofSeven Pillars of Wisdom in the USA. In 1936 Prof. Lawrence split the remaining assets of the estate, giving Clouds Hill and many copies of less substantial or historical letters to the nation via the National Trust, and then set up two trusts to control interests in T. E. Lawrence's residual copyrights. To the original Seven Pillars Trust, Prof. Lawrence assigned the copyright in Seven Pillars of Wisdom, as a result of which it was given its first general publication. To the Letters and Symposium Trust, he assigned the copyright in The Mint and all Lawrence's letters, which were subsequently edited and published in the book T. E. Lawrence by his Friends (edited by A. W. Lawrence, London, Jonathan Cape, 1937).

A substantial amount of income went directly to the RAF Benevolent Fund or for archaeological, environmental, or academic projects. The two trusts were amalgamated in 1986 and, on the death of Prof. A. W. Lawrence in 1991, the unified trust also acquired all the remaining rights to Lawrence's works that it had not owned, plus rights to all of Prof. Lawrence's works.

Bibliography[edit]

Sexuality[edit]

Lawrence's biographers have discussed his sexuality at considerable length, and this discussion has spilled into the popular press.[54]

There is no reliable evidence for consensual sexual intimacy between Lawrence and any person. His friends have expressed the opinion that he wasasexual,[55][56] and Lawrence himself specifically denied, in multiple private letters, any personal experience of sex.[57] While there were suggestions that Lawrence had been intimate with Dahoum, who worked with Lawrence at a pre-war archaeological dig in Carchemish,[58] and fellow-serviceman R.A.M. Guy,[59] his biographers and contemporaries have found them unconvincing.[58][59][60]

The dedication to his book Seven Pillars is a poem titled "To S.A." which opens:

I loved you, so I drew these tides of men into my hands

                    and wrote my will across the sky in stars

To earn you Freedom, the seven-pillared worthy house,

                    that your eyes might be shining for me

                              When we came.

Lawrence was never specific about the identity of "S.A." There are many theories which argue in favour of individual men, women, and the Arab nation. The most popular is that S.A. represents (at least in part) his companion Selim Ahmed, "Dahoum", who apparently died of typhus before 1918.[61]

Although Lawrence lived in a period during which official opposition to homosexuality was strong, his writing on the subject was tolerant. In Seven Pillars, when discussing relationships between young male fighters in the war, he refers on one occasion to "the openness and honesty of perfect love"[62] and on another to "friends quivering together in the yielding sand with intimate hot limbs in supreme embrace".[63] In a letter to Charlotte Shaw he wrote "I've seen lots of man-and-man loves: very lovely and fortunate some of them were."[64]

In both Seven Pillars and a 1919 letter to a military colleague,[65] Lawrence describes an episode on 20 November 1917 in which, while reconnoitring Dera'a in disguise, he was captured by the Ottoman military, heavily beaten, and sexually abused by the local Bey and his guardsmen. The precise nature of the sexual contact is not specified. There have been allegations that the episode was an invention of Lawrence’s and (with some evidence) that the injuries Lawrence claims to have suffered were exaggerated.[66] Although there is no independent testimony, the multiple consistent reports, and the absence of evidence for outright invention in Lawrence's works, make the account believable to his biographers.[67] At least three of Lawrence's biographers (Malcolm Brown, John E. Mack, andJeremy Wilson) have argued this episode had strong psychological effects on Lawrence which may explain some of his unconventional behaviour in later life.

There is considerable evidence that Lawrence was a masochist. In his description of the Dera'a beating, Lawrence wrote "a delicious warmth, probably sexual, was swelling through me", and also included a detailed description of the guards' whip in a style typical of masochists' writing.[68] In later life, Lawrence arranged to pay a military colleague to administer beatings to him,[54] and to be subjected to severe formal tests of fitness and stamina.[69] While John Bruce, who first wrote on this topic, included some other claims which were not credible, Lawrence's biographers regard the beatings as established fact.[70]

John E. Mack sees a possible connection between T. E.'s masochism and the childhood beatings he had received from his mother[71] for routine misbehaviours.[72]His brother Arnold thought the beatings had been given for the purpose of breaking T. E.'s will.[72] Writing in 1997, Angus Calder noted that it is "astonishing" that earlier commentators discussing Lawrence's apparent masochism and self-loathing failed to consider the impact on Lawrence of having lost his brothers Frank and Will on the Western front, along with many other school friends.[73]

Awards and commemorations....