Paoli

Corsican statesman and patriot who was responsible for ending Genoese rule

of Corsica and for establishing enlightened rule and reforms.

Link to Alfieri: Was something in leadership of Paoli and in mode of living

of Corsicans that were to appeal to yearnings which were to express

themselves violently 20 yrs later. In Italy, Parini and Vittorio Alfieri

(who, riding a wave of Italian nationalism, dedicated his 'Timoleone' to the

Corsican hero in 1788), were among hte most illustrious of the generation of

writers and poets who regarded Paoli as the Enlightened hero, not only of

Corsica but also of Italy. Also had many admirers in France, including

Rousseau, Raynal and Voltaire - became the darling of the Enlightenment.

[N.B. Nothing more on this so far - will continue to look - still looking

for link with Thomas Hutchinson also].

Pasquale Paoli was born on 26 April 1725, at Stretta di Morosaglia, Corsica,

the younger son of Giacinto Paoli and Dionisia Valentina - had elder brother

(by 10 yrs) Clemente and sister Chiara. Both parents descended from the

Caporali, and father was the chief of the clan which had been in the

forefront of struggle for Corsican liberty against the Genoese since the

C14th. In 1729, the Corsicans, headed by elected chiefs or generals among

whom was Giacinto Paoli, against tried to expel the Genoese, and in 1735

Giacinto was chosen one of the three "generals of the people". However, with

intervention of French troops under Marquis de Maillebois - on request of

Genoese - in the war (were primarily concerned with keeping their rivals

from displacing the Genoese), in 1738 Corsicans were forced to surrender to

the French. Giacinto then went into exile, taking with him younger son

Pasquale, now approaching 14th year. In 1739, Giacinto entered the military

service of the Kingdom of Naples with rank of lieutenant colonel, and early

in 1741, aged 16, Pasquale enrolled as a cadet in father's Corsican Regiment

at Naples, and was trained at the Royal Academy of Naples, where for next 6

yrs he was engaged in garrison duties.

Very little known concerning life of PP during next 14 yrs (1741-55): worked

at garrisons of Gaeta (1742-43), Pizza Falcone (1743-45), Gallipoli (1745),

then Brindisi, and in 1746 was sent to artillery course at Naples after

which was made second lieutenant. Was during this course that he probably

attended lectures at the University of Naples, including those by the

Italian philosopher and economist Antonio Genovesi, and began during next

few years reading literature of the Enlightenment, including the English

journal 'The Spectator'. Then, in 1752, PP was transferred to Longone for

garrison duty in the Tuscan States of the Presidi.

Meanwhile, back in Corsica, from 1752 Corsicans again rebelling against

Geneose under General Gian Pietro Gaffori, while Paoli clan led by elder

brother Clemente, a fanatically religious guerilla leader. In 1753, however,

Genoese secured assassination of Gaffori, and Clemente was offered job of

leading Corsican administration, but refused (apparently had no political

ambitions, preferring to spent much time in solitary worship). Meanwhile,

some Corsican leaders advocating placing Corsica under protection of the

Grand Master of the Order of the Knights of Malta, and was in opposition to

this that PP first became directly involved in Corsican politics. Aided by

his famous name, he wrote letters, powerful broadsheets, made speeches, and

quickly emerged as new and powerful ally to the Corsican war party - plus

offered hope as a well-trained and experienced soldier. PP made strong links

with Corsican adherents and supporters in Tuscany, and by mid-October he was

in direct contact with many Corsican chiefs.

During 1754, PP bombarded Corsicans with proposals, over and over again

insisting that war must be prosecuted, as freedom cd only be obtained by

military victory, but on a victory that must be built on a reformed

administration and an economic plan. Outlined plan for stamping out

vendettas, establishing rule of law on island, complete reformation of

judiciary with new courts set up, new outlets for Corsican commerce to be

found (as Genoese held the sea-ports), and if necessary a new port

established for exports with creation of navy to protect it. Enthusiasm and

vigour v. infectious, and soon more and more began to consider him General

the island needed. PP arrived back in Corsica in April 1755, carrying copy

of Montesquieu's 'Spirit of the Laws', and on 15 July was elected by the

"Supreme and General Council of the Kingdom of Corsica" as General of the

Corsicans. One of first things he did was to gain support of clergy for his

wish to abolish the vendetta, as this played great part in perpetuating

Genoese domination of island- first declared an amnesty, and the on 3 August

1755 he decreed death penalty for all murders, plus struck at family pride

(one of great stimulants of vendetta) by decreeing that, outside the house

of anyone found guilty of murder a pillar should be erected with name of

murdered inscribed on it, to bring shame to family. Although this had been

tried before, it had never been pursued systematically - public shame

covered all murderers, from all ranks of society. His dedication to this

tested straight away: one of first to be found guilty under new system was

relative of Paoli's mother - however, found no special treatment, and was

executed - greatly helping Paoli's cause.

Matra Rebellion, Autumn 1755-56: Chief opponent during first years was

former colleague and compatriot Emmanuel Matra, who was resentful of power

given to PP and so raised force against him, including support of Genoese.

Civil war ensued, in which PP dangerously close to death - surprised by

Matra in convent of Bozio, and PP only saved by Matra's death in March 1756.

This success over Matra rebellion however won Paoli great support in

Corsica, and next five years were very happy, as was no body of Corsicans

who opposed his rule, despite -

War Against Genoese, 1756-64: Once war against Matra faction ended with his

death, PP then vigorously carried on war against Genoese - who continued to

occupy several fortresses and coastal towns, including the port of Bastia.

Meanwhile, in 1756 (by agreement with the Genoese, a result of Seven Years'

War), French troops occupied 3 of Corsica's key fortresses - Calvi, Ajaccio

and San Fiorenzo - by treaty (1756-59). Although resistant to French

occupation, PP actually helped by this: French remained neutral between

Genoese and Corsicans (just wanted to guard coastal fortresses against

English), and so allowed PP to concentrate all his forces at Bastia, and was

here that most of fighting took place between Genoese and Corsicans up to

1760, when PP finally able to drive the Genoese out of some of the coastal

forts, including Bastia, Calvi, and San Lorenzo, and eventually also out of

Ajaccio. At this point, Genoese finally applied for French military aid, and

secret treaty was signed at Compiegne on 7 August 1764, the French promising

military aid to Genoese for 4 yrs, and Count Marbeuf landed 6 batallions as

an occupation force on Corsica in October 1764. This heralded four years of

armed truce on island.

Reforms, 1755-69: During period of military strife against Genoese, PP still

managed to put in place many of the reforms he had planned, under principles

of enlightened despotism. During these years he transformed Corsica, most

famously by suppressing the system of vendetta - which for centuries had

been the plague of the island - and substituting order and justice. He also

introduced a democratic constitution and many liberal reforms, promoted

agriculture, commerce (gaining much popularity by relaxing ban against

trading with Corsicans in the occupied ports), and mining, established a

university at Corte on 25 November 1764 and a school in every village.

Organized an army, built up a naval fleet, and founded the port of

L'Ile-Rousse and a mint at Murato with revenue of one million livres, or

£40,000. By now Paoli was darling of Enlightenment intellectuals across

Europe - esp. Rousseau and Voltaire - a situation then encouraged further in

autumn 1765, when young English lawyer James Boswell visited Corsica for six

weeks, and interviewed PP - pair became great friends: in 1768 Boswell

published first work to make his name, 'An Account of Corsica, The Journal

of a Tour to That Island; and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli'.

War Against Genoese, 1768-9: Political situation in Corsica altered again in

1768, when with Treaty of Versailles (15 May 1768), Genoa - pressured by

French claims of huge expense of Corsican occupation - effectively sold

Corsica to France. PP had no say in treaty of course, and determined on

vigorous resistance - French invaded island in force (22,000 men) in June,

and although Corsican nationalists put up remarkably heroic fight (eg

defeated French at Borgo), was inevitable that they should be defeated.

Decisive battle was at Ponte Nuovo on 9 May 1769, where Corsicans totally

beaten under leadership of PP. French entered Corte and overran rest of

island; PP retreated to church of Vivario with 537 men who were then

surrounded by 4,000 French troops - Corsicans bravely cut way through troops

at night, and some including PP managed to reach shore, from where PP +

others embarked on English frigate at Port Vecchio and sailed for Leghorn.

Landed 16 June 1769, where met up with brother Clemente and about 300 other

fugitives - all got great welcome from English and Italians. Some Corsicans

were given lands by Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, while others entered

service of King of Sardinia, and few went to Minorca.

England, 1769-90:

PP, however, went to England in 1769 with idea of enlisting aid for his

defeated country, and arrived in London on 21 September. Was greeted as hero

wherever he went - had private audience with George III, and feted in

streets (this despite fact that British govt - dedicated to policy of peace

• had done nothing to help Corsicans during struggle with France: Boswell,

on other hand, had raised large amount in subscriptions to send money and

arms to Corsica). On 10 October, Boswell introduced PP to Samuel Johnson,

and within weeks the Prime Minister, Duke of Grafton, obtained for him a

pension of £1,200 p.a. on civil list, which he was to receive for next 20

yrs. PP introduced at court, where received by George III, and was later on

elected to the Club, where became intimate of Johnson's group, especially of

Johnson himself, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Edmund Burke and Oliver Goldsmith, and

in 1776 elected member of Royal Society. However, during passage of years in

England, PP inevitably faded from the memory of many - when he discovered

that the English were not likely to dispute French control of Corsica, he

went less and less into society, living quietly with his Corsican dependents

and servants at lodgings, first in Old Bond Street and then in Albermarle

Street. However, was no recluse - continued to mix with Boswell, Johnson,

Reynolds, Goldsmith etc. - plus grew in stature across Europe during 1780s

with French Rev etc - eg Alfieri 1788.

Corsica, 1790-95:

In early 1790, after Corsica had been decreed by Convention in France as one

of the departments of revolutionary France, Mirabeau in National Assembly

proposed that PP should be recalled from exile to rule over Corsica.

Resigning his pension, PP took this - highly controversial (as effectively

in league with enemy France, and meant that he accepted French sovereignty -

but originally had high hopes for French Rev.) - opportunity and left

England for Paris, where in April 1790 he delivered address to National

Assembly in which he promised to be loyal to new revolutionary France, and

was presented to Louis XVI. PP then granted amnesty by the French govt. and

was appointed by Louis XVI lieutenant-general and military commandant of

Corsica.

PP then returned to Corsica on 17 July 1790, where he immediately was

elected as President by Corsican General Assembly and reasserted his

authority and re-established his paternalistic-type rule as governor.

However, was not young heroic Corsican rebel, but 64-yr-old man plagued with

arthritis. In autumn 1791 met 21-yr-old fan Napoleon Bonaparte, who he found

highly irritating but said prophetically that "You are one of Plutarch's men

• the whole world will talk of you". Despite promises of loyalty, excesses

of French Rev. govt. horrified PP, and he was soon estranged from Directory

republican govt in Paris - began to be attacked in French pamphlets by

Philippe Buonarroti and others. With execution of Louis XVI, PP decided to

make another bid for Corsican independence, was declared Generalissimo, and

applied to England for protection - influential Bonaparte family totally

opposed to this and joined Corsican Jacobins, who were in favour of Corsican

allegiance to France in Oct 1792. Civil war followed, PP victory in spring

1793 meant that he ordered summary arrest and explusion of every Bonaparte

on island, and burned Bonaparte mansion at Ajaccio.

In July 1793, PP outlawed for treason by the Convention in Paris (so

effectively now a fugitive) , and PP now applied to British commanders in

Mediterranean for help to drive French garrisons out of Corsica. Secured

cooperation of Admiral Viscount Samuel Hood and General Sir David Dundas,

and English force landed at Fiorenza on 8 February 1794 - drove French out,

who surrended Bastia on 10 June, and PP elected as President, with Pozzo di

Borgo as his Secretary. Soon after, PP dispatched deputation to London

offering sovereignty of Corsica to English - George III accepted offer on 17

June, and 2 days later Sir Gilbert Elliott (later Lord Minto) provisionally

appointed as viceroy. This huge blow to PP, who had been expected to be

appointed viceroy, but he remained in Corsica working alongside Elliot, who

then chose not PP but Pozzo di Borgo as his chief advisor. In 1795, Elliot

was then confirmed as permanent viceroy of Corsica, and PP, greatly

disappointed and not wishing to be source of internal strife on island,

decided to return to England on strategic invitation of George III. (In

1796, British evacuated island owing to general Corsican disaffection with

British rule, and island then reunited with France).

England, 1795-1807: During last years in England, PP received a govt pension

and lived on Edgware Road, London. Exile v. different from last time, public

sympathy for Corsica now dead, so given no audience by king, PM Pitt not

interested, although did have politicians Fox and Sheridan on his side.

Instead, PP now lived in comparative seclusion; most of friends dead -

Johnson, Reynolds, Boswell - although as Elliot's misjudgement about

Corsican affairs became more apparent he was increasingly accepted into

English society again, although arthritis and failing sight meant still

didn't socialize much. PP died in London on 5 February 1807, aged 82, buried

in St. Pancras cemetery, with memorial placed in Westminster Abbey with bust

by Flaxman. Eighty years later his remains exhumed by permission of British

govt and reinterred at birthplace on Corsica.

Character: Greatly praised by everyone as great man - nobility of his

character, bravery on battlefield, wisdom of his council, enlightened

reforms - but especially by other leaders. Frederick the Great sent him a

sword of honour emblazoned with words "Patria Libertas"; Napoleon, in spite

of extreme antagonism between them, wrote in his 'Memorials of St. Helena'

that he regretted not calling for PP as an adviser when he was emperor.

Nothing strange or weird: never married - said would only ever marry if

found woman who wanted to who had huge dowry that he cd then devote to

Corsican cause: can't find any lovers either, though of course must have

been some (and was rumoured to have Corsican mistress): was lifelong friends

with Jefferson's (and according to gossips, castrato Mareschi's) one-time

lover, Maria Cosway (miniature painter, wife of Richard Cosway) and was

godfather

to her daughter, but no sign of anything more than frienship.