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Borelli, G

Full Name: Giovanni Alfonso Borelli

Achievements: Developed a pre-Newtonian explanation of heliocentric planetary motions; combined Descartes' mechanics and Galileo's geometrical analysis in the study of physiology (“iatromechanics”); postulated outside agents as the cause of epidemic diseases and proposed chemical remedies

Born: January 28, 1608; Naples, Italy

Died: December 31, 1679; Rome, Italy (Aged 71)

Field & Discipline: Mathematics, Science; Medicine; Celestial Mechanics, Physiology; Epidemiology

Language: Italian; Latin

Father: Miguel Alonso

Mother: Laura Porrello (a.k.a. Porrella, Borrella, Borrelli)

Siblings: Four brothers, one sister

Spouse: Unknown

Children: Unknown

Education: University of Naples (unconfirmed); tutored in philosophy and mathematics

Major Work:

“Delle cagioni delle febbri maligne di Sicilia negli anni 1647 e 1648” (“On the Causes of the Malignant Fevers of Sicily in the Years 1647 and 1648”) (1649)

“Theoricae mediceorum planetarum ex causis physicis deductae” (“Theory of the Medicean Planets Deduced from Physical Causes”) (1666)

“De motu animalium” (“On the Movement of Animals”) (1680-1681)

Life & Times:

Borelli was born in Naples during the Spanish occupation, the son of a Neapolitan woman and a Spanish soldier stationed in the city. With his father apparently caught in some sort of political intrigue leading to a brief period of exile in Rome, Borelli's early years were unsettled. Before and after being exiled Borelli's father was posted at the two fortresses in Naples where philosopher [taught by] Campanella* was held prisoner for heresy.

Between 1618 and 1626 Campanella was allowed to receive friends and students, and it seems likely Borelli was among his pupils during this time. Campanella was later taken to Rome and eventually freed in 1628, about the time that Borelli himself arrived in the city.

Perhaps benefiting from a personal introduction by Campanella, Borelli became a student of mathematician Benedetto Castelli, a follower of Galileo. Along with [knew] Torricelli*, Borelli was introduced to Galileo's experimental-mathematical philosophy by Castelli. On the basis of Castelli's recommendation, Borelli obtained a public lectureship in mathematics in Messina, Sicily, about 1635.

Messina was the first and longest stop in Borelli's career as an itinerant mathematician and scientist in politically fragmented 17th-century Italy. Over a period of forty years he would move periodically from one city-state to another, usually in search of an academic position and patronage but once to escape political difficulties.

Arriving in Messina, Borelli quickly established himself among the city's political and intellectual elite. A move was underway to improve the local university, and in 1642 the senate of Messina dispatched Borelli to the leading universities of mainland Italy in search of potential faculty. On this extended trip he visited Naples, Rome, Venice, and Florence, renewing old acquaintances and establishing new contacts.

While in Florence, Borelli met Prince Leopold de' Medici, brother of [patron was] Ferdinand II*  , the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and [knew] Viviani*, Galileo's assistant. Borelli returned to Messina in 1643 and resumed his teaching and mathematical research, eventually publishing “Euclides restitutus” (1658), a distillation of Euclid's “Elements” with commentary.

In 1647 and 1648, Messina experienced a prolonged epidemic, and Borelli was among the local intelligentsia solicited to investigate the cause. Publishing “Delle cagioni delle febbri maligne di Sicilia negli anni 1647 e 1648” (“On the Causes of the Malignant Fevers of Sicily in the Years 1647 and 1648”) in 1649, Borelli postulated outside agents as the cause of the epidemic and proposed administering sulfur as a remedy. Like Paracelsus a century before, Borelli rejected the notion that disease resulted from an imbalance in the four bodily humors, but at the same time he disagreed with Paracelsus that meteorological conditions and astrological influences were among the true causes.

After unsuccessfully seeking the chair in mathematics at the University of Pisa in 1640, Borelli finally obtained this position when it became vacant again in 1656. Borelli's arrival in Tuscany marked the beginning of a fruitful period in his career, during which he benefited from the patronage of the Medici family. Borelli established an anatomical laboratory at his house in Pisa, conducting animal dissections with [worked with] Malpighi*, professor of medicine at the university.

Although Borelli and Malpighi overlapped in Pisa for only three years, their association was instrumental in prompting both men to pursue the study of iatromechanics, an application of Decartes'  mechanical philosophy to physiological problems. Borelli was especially interested in the mechanics of animal movement, which he analyzed using Galileo's rigorous geometrical techniques.

Although Borelli's research on this problem was interrupted repeatedly over the years, “De motu animalium” (“On the Movement of Animals”), published posthumously in 1680 and 1681, would be his most influential work.

When Leopold de' Medici founded the [member of] Accademia del Cimento* (Academy of Experiments) in 1657, he included Borelli among its select membership. Dedicated to the advancement of Galilean experimental science, the Accademia continued the Medici Court's long-standing tradition of scientific patronage. Borelli's colleagues at the Accademia included [colleague was] Viviani* and [colleague was] Stensen*, the Danish anatomist. Publishing as a group, the Accademia reproduced a wide range of experiments reported in the scientific literature.

By validating these experimental results, the Accademia served as an early form of scientific peer review. Borelli was perhaps the most important member of the Accademia, but he eventually chafed at Prince Leopold's insistence on the anonymity of individual members. The Accademia faded away when Borelli left, after only ten years of existence.

In 1665 Borelli established an astronomical observatory near Florence, from which he studied the Medicean Planets (moons of Jupiter), building on [followed up on] Galileo's* pioneering work. Borelli incorporated his observations into a general theory of celestial mechanics, combining central forces with linear inertial motion to explain [followed up on] Kepler's* elliptical planetary orbits.

The result was “Theoricae mediceorum planetarum ex causis physicis deductae” (“Theory of the Medicean Planets Deduced from Physical Causes”), published in 1666 and so titled to avoid running afoul of the Inquisition. The thinly veiled subject of this book, however, was the motion of the five known planets and Earth in a heliocentric system. Although well received -- [work known to] Newton* owned a copy of Borelli's book -- Borelli's celestial mechanics would soon be overshadowed by Newton's “Principia,” published in 1687.

In 1667 Borelli returned to Messina to his former position in mathematics and also became involved in political affairs. In 1672 a political insurrection lead to Borelli's being declared a rebel, forcing him to leave Sicily. Borelli had been corresponding with [knew] Ricci* in Rome, another former student of Castelli who was now enjoying the patronage of [patron was] Christina of Sweden*, the expatriate and Catholic convert. Arriving in Rome, Borelli soon joined Ricci under Christina's protection.

Borelli remained in Rome for the rest of his life, participating in the scientific academies supported by Christina while hoping for election to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris. In Borelli's view, his chances of election depended on the publication of “De motu animalium,” his long-dormant study in iatromechanics, so Christina agreed to finance the project in 1679. However, Borelli died before his greatest work appeared in print.

Assessment: Leading figure in 17th century Italian science.  Proponent of the Galilean experimental-mathematical philosophy

Oneliner: Giovanni Borelli, major 17th-century Italian scientist

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