SOON 3 CERES

218 FIU Law Review [Vol. 20:163 uncharitable

2025 https://ecollections.law.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1743&context=lawreview

:{:{C. Ways and Means DOTTs Have Achieved Influence 1.}:

Using Scientists to Refute Climate Science A dozen or so scientists have formed the tip of the spear of think tanks’ climate denial.289 Patrick Michaels 290 and Richard Lindzen 291 were mentioned above. But apart from Lindzen, peer review publications by this cohort are sparse. And few of them had positions as full-time academic scientists, at least in relevant fields. These factors made them more beholden to D&O think tanks for speaking events, publicity, and/or funding. They also formed an insular group—often meeting and presenting alongside one another at DOTT events.292 One of the most prominent scientists in this group was Dr. “Willie” Wei-Hock Soon;

Soon’s career is discussed in depth here because it is in many respects exemplary. Dr. Soon received a Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from USC in 1991.293 Shortly thereafter he moved to the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA).294 The Harvard name gave Soon leverage in obtaining

NOTES

:{:{289 See generally ORESKES & CONWAY, supra note 163 (describing the careers of Richard Lindzen, Patrick Michaels, Frederick Seitz, S. Fred Singer, Sherwood Idso, William Happer, and Freeman Dyson, the most prominent members of this cohort other than Dr. Soon); DAVID LIPSKY, THE PARROT AND THE IGLOO (2024) (discussing the careers of S. Fred Singer and Frederick Seitz).}:

Seitz became a climate denier after an illustrious career that included serving as president of Rockefeller University). For an updated account of prominent climate denier scientists, and where they received support, see Maxine Joselow, He Won a Nobel Prize. Then He Started Denying Climate Change.,

WASH. POST (Nov. 16, 2023), https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/11/16/john-clauser-nobel-climate-denial/ [https://perma.cc/EZV3-45QT] (discussing John F. Clauser as well as Will Happer, Richard Lindzen, and Willie Soon). 290

:{:{For a description of Patrick Michaels’s career, see supra note 150. 291 While at MIT, Lindzen maintained affiliations with Cato, Heartland, and the CO2 Coalition (previously the Marshall Institute). Lindzen’s views on climate change provoked criticism from his peers. After he authored a public letter to then-President Trump, urging U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Accord, twenty-two of his MIT colleagues authored an open letter to the university’s president, expressing their disagreement with his views. Zahra Hirji, Climate Contrarian Gets Fact-Checked by MIT Colleagues in Open Letter to Trump, INSIDE CLIMATE NEWS (Mar. 6, 2017), https://www.insideclimatenews.org/news/06032017/climate-change-denial-scientists-richard-lindzenmit-donald-trump/ [https://perma.cc/X8EP-Q8K5] (“The MIT staff addressed specific inaccuracies in Lindzen’s letter, including his assertion that ‘carbon dioxide is not a pollutant.’”). 292}:

For a review of the evolving, but consistently overwhelming, consensus about human causation and accelerating warming in Earth’s temperatures, see generally John Cook et al., Consensus on Consensus: A Synthesis of Consensus Estimates Human-Caused Global Warming, ENV’T RSCH. LETTERS, Apr. 2016, at 1; Cook et al., supra note 21, at 1....}:}:}:

LOTS ON WILLIE I DL 4/14/26

2025] Uncharitable Think Tanks 219

DOTT sponsorships.295 And promoting Soon as a “Harvard scientist” who

rejected that human behavior principally was causing climate change

benefited the DOTTs’ credibility, too.296 However, some obfuscation was

involved in this, because CfA is not formally part of Harvard University.297

CfA’s lack of university affiliation also highlights that Soon’s career wasn’t

governed by formal academic practices and standards like tenure and peer

review, for example.

Dr. Soon became embroiled in two controversies. The first was a hugely

public peer review controversy. It was described in detail in the Chronicle

for Higher Education 298 and in an essay written by an editor who left the

:{:{journal at issue.299}:

To elaborate, in 2003, the journal Climate Research}:

published a paper on climate change co-authored by Dr. Soon and a

colleague, Dr. Sally Balunias.300 Technically the paper was a literature

review. Nevertheless, its conclusion was that, “[a]cross the world, many

records reveal that the [twentieth] century is probably not the warmest nor a

uniquely extreme climatic period of the last millennium.” It also observed

NOTES

295 Goldenberg, supra note 240 (“In the relatively small universe of climate denial Soon, with his

Harvard-Smithsonian credentials, was a sought-after commodity. He was cited admiringly by Senator

James Inhofe, the Oklahoma Republican who famously called global warming a hoax. He was called to

testify when Republicans in the Kansas state legislature tried to block measures promoting wind and solar

power. The Heartland Institute, a hub of climate denial, gave Soon a courage award.”).

296 For an example where the Harvard name was mentioned at the event, see David Hasemyer, A

Weak Link to Harvard-Smithsonian Gave Star Power to Climate Contrarian Willie Soon, INSIDE CLIMATE

NEWS (Mar. 4, 2015), https://insideclimatenews.org/news/04032015/weak-link-harvard-smithsonian-

gave-star-power-climate-contrarian-willie-soon/ [https://perma.cc/MWY7-GYQP] (“‘The audience ate

up what Soon had to say,’ said Mulkey, who described the group as pro-industry. ‘It’s like, here’s this

Harvard scientist telling us all the other scientists are lying to us.’”). Paul Basken,...

04 – [Vol. 20:163

that, “[o]verall, the [twentieth] century does not contain the warmest anomaly

of the past millennium in most of the proxy records, which have been

:{:{sampled world-wide.”301}:

In 2003, given expert climate scientists’ confidence}:

in anthropogenic climate change, this was a radical conclusion.

The research paper, accordingly, immediately garnered vocal

publicity—negative and positive. Several scientists cited in it vocally

objected their data had been misrepresented.302 Others declared the paper’s

methodology was fundamentally flawed. Thirteen climate scientists

:{:{published a detailed public rebuttal.303}:

Yet in July 2003, on the positive side,}:

Senator James Inhofe waved a copy aloft on the Senate floor—declaring,

“The 1,000-year climate study that the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for

Astrophysics has compiled is a powerful new work of science.”304 He had its

conclusions—casting doubt on anthropogenic climate change—entered into

:{:{the Congressional record.305}:

But this was not the last word. Climate}:

Research’s incoming Editor-in-Chief resigned in acknowledgment of the

research’s flaws and the flawed peer review process. Then three more

members of Climate Research’s ten-member editorial board resigned.306

Finally, the managing director of the journal’s parent company issued a mea

culpa for publishing the article.307 Hence, even for Soon, because producing

peer review climate (denial) science was nearly impossible, ongoing support

from the DOTTs became crucial...

2025] Uncharitable Think Tanks 221

The second controversy involved money—undisclosed financial

conflicts behind Dr. Soon’s research funding.308 Some background is

necessary to understand the financial conflicts story. CfA did not pay Dr.

Soon directly. As was true of a minority of CfA’s other scientists, his

continued employment depended on obtaining external grants.309 Unlike the

common pattern in which CfA scientists obtained grants from NASA and the

National Science Foundation, however, Soon’s funding almost exclusively

came from wealthy private patrons.310 Later discovered grant contracts show

donations made by ExxonMobil,311 the Southern Company,312 the Charles G.

Koch Charitable Foundation,313 the Texaco and Mobil Foundations, the

notes

308 It was later disclosed that CfA did not have a conflicts of interest policy at the time. David

Hasemeyer, Smithsonian Gives Nod to More ‘Dark Money’ Funding for Willie Soon, INSIDE CLIMATE

NEWS (Apr. 5, 2016), https://insideclimatenews.org/news/05042016/willie-soon-climate-change-

contrarian-harvard-smithsonian-donors-trust-dark-money/ [https://perma.cc/CR92-U7HY] (“The

Smithsonian Institution’s new transparency policy hasn’t kept prominent climate contrarian Wei-Hock

‘Willie’ Soon from reeling in $65,000 in ‘dark money’ to fund a secret research project.”).

309 Id. (illuminating funding channels); see also Kert Davies, Willie Soon Scandal: Topics for

Smithsonian Inspector General, CLIMATE INVESTIGATIONS CTR. (Feb. 25, 2015),

https://climateinvestigations.org/willie-soon-scandal-topics-for-smithsonian-institution/

[https://perma.cc/YE6V-R9N3]; Hasemyer, supra at note 308 (“Though employed by the prestigious

institution, Soon had to attract outside funding for his research and entire salary to keep his job.”).

310 Formally, CfA was the recipient, but the grants were earmarked for Soon’s researc...

222 FIU Law Review [Vol. 20:163

Electric Power Research Institute,314 Donors Trust,315 and the American

Petroleum Institute.316 At least one of the contracts expressly provided that

the donor was to remain confidential.317 Leaving aside two grants from the

Mount Wilson Observatory, after about 2002, virtually all Dr. Soon’s funding

came from fossil fuel-linked sources.318 This information about Soon’s

funding was uncovered only by extraordinary effort and luck. Kert Davies, a

respected climate investigative reporter, made a successful Freedom of

Information Act (FOIA) request319 based on CfA’s link to the Smithsonian

Institute, a government affiliated body. After Soon’s funding contracts at CfA

became public, the New York Times reported that the donors named above...

notes

314 Vidal, supra note 311 (“Documents provided to Greenpeace by the Smithsonian under the US

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) show that the Charles G. Koch Foundation, a leading provider of

funds for climate sceptic groups, gave Soon two grants totaling $175,000 (then roughly £102,000) in

:{:{2005/6 and again in 2010.}:

In addition, the American Petroleum Institute (API), which represents the US}:

petroleum and natural gas industries, gave him multiple grants between 2001 and 2007 totaling $274,000,

oil company Exxon Mobil provided $335,000 between 2005 and 2010, and Soon received other grants

from coal and oil industry sources including the Mobil Foundation, the Texaco Foundation and the Electric

Power Research Institute.”).

315 Hasemeyer, supra note 308 (“Since 2011, the 50-year-old Soon has received nearly $389,000

from Donors Trust, and his only current grants are from Donors Trust. Presently, he is working on a project

as part of a $209,864 Donors Trust Grant he won in 2013. He also has applied for another Donors Trust

grant of $53,527, according to Harvard-Smithsonian records.”).

316 Goldenberg, supra note 242 (“Over the last 14 years Willie Soon, a researcher at the Harvard-

Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics, received a total of $1.25m from Exxon Mobil, Southern Company,

the American Petroleum Institute (API) and a foundation run by the ultra-conservative Koch brothers, the

documents obtained by Greenpeace through freedom of information filings show.”)...

2025] Uncharitable Think Tanks 223

channeled over $1.2 million to him between 2001 and 2011.320 The sum was

later raised to $1.5 million. 321

It’s crucial to realize that DOTT-backed contrarian scientists were not

contesting fine points of mainstream climate research; rather, they

fundamentally dismissed it. Dr. Soon’s statements quoted below are

representative. He claimed his work demonstrated that CO2 emissions were

not the primary cause of climate change.322 (It did not.) He asserted that more

atmospheric CO2 would benefit living organisms.323 Without evidence, he

accused the IPCC scientist Michael Mann of falsifying his data.324 At a

Heartland panel, in September 2019, Dr. Soon said, “There is no such thing

as a climate catastrophe, these people are talking nonsense. It’s unbelievable

that we have to answer all this craziness.”325 In August 2018, at a presentation

entitled “The Global Warming, Climate Change Hoax,” he told an audience

of young people that CO2 is “merely a bit player” in climate change.

Elsewhere he asserted that “[n]o experimental data exists supporting the view

that the Earth’s climate is anomalous or changing in a dangerous manner.”326

Also in 2018, he co-signed a public letter addressed to the Board of the

Museum of Natural History stating, “It is quite likely that future generations

will benefit from the enrichment of Earth’s atmosphere with more carbon

dioxide.”327 Along with Lindzen, Soon signed a 2017 public letter urging...

notes

320 Gillis & Schwartz, supra note 313 (“He has accepted more than $1.2 million in money from

the fossil-fuel industry over the last decade while failing to disclose that conflict of interest in most of his

scientific papers. At least 11 papers he has published since 2008 omitted such a disclosure, and in at least

eight of those cases, he appears to have violated ethical guidelines of the journals that published his

work.”).

321 Kert Davies, Willie Soon Scandal: Corporate Funding Year by Year, CLIMATE

INVESTIGATIONS CTR. (Feb. 27, 2015), https://climateinvestigations.org/willie-soon-scandal-corporate-

funding-year-by-year/ [https://perma.cc/RK9B-FKEC].

322 Willie Soon, It’s the Sun, Stupid!, ICEAGENOW (Mar. 5, 2009), https://archive.is/Zwg6q.

[https://perma.cc/5RL...

224 FIU Law Review [Vol. 20:163

President Trump to withdraw from the Paris Accord.328 Soon was also a

founding member of Climate Exit, a group urging that the “world must

abandon this suicidal Global Warming crusade.”329

The DOTTs had a principal role in supporting Dr. Soon’s public career.

Soon held the position of senior scientist at the Marshall Institute.330

Heartland’s website lists Dr. Soon, still, as a policy advisor.331 Soon regularly

spoke at Heartland’s annual contrarian conferences, including in 2019, 2018,

:{:{2017, 2015, 2014, 2012, 2009, and 2008.332}:

In a co-authored op-ed in the}:

Wall Street Journal, Soon referred to himself as the chief science researcher

at the Center for Science and Public Policy.333 The latter think tank’s

webpage still lists Dr. Soon as its chief science advisor.334 In 2016, Dr. Soon

spoke at an energy conference sponsored by Heritage and TPPF, which they

billed as the “premier energy and climate policy event in America.”335 In

2020, Soon appeared in C-FACT’s documentary, Climate Hustle 2: Rise of

:{:{the Climate Monarchy.336}:

In 2018, in California climate litigation, Dr. Soon}:

served as the climate science expert in an amicus brief filed by Heartland to

give the court a “climate tutorial.”337 Dr. Soon contributed to the Institute for

notes

328 See Petition, Lindzen Attachment (Feb. 23, 2017), https://www.desmog.com/wp-

content/uploads/files/Climate%20denier%20Paris%20withdrawal%20petition.pdf

[https://perma.cc/3TEB-VH8V] (claiming it had 300 eminent scientist signatories, but upon inspection,

that assertion was largely bogus).

329 After Brexit, Clexit, CLEXIT.NET (Aug. 1, 2016),

https://web.archive.org/web/20160804173707/http://clexit.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/clexit.pdf

[https://perma.cc/33BZ-MWUM] (“If the Paris climate accord is ratified, or enforced locally by compliant

governments, it will strangle the leading economies of the world with pointless carbon taxes and costly

climate and energy policies, all with no sound basis in evidence or science.”); see also CLEXIT.NET, LIST

OF CLEXIT MEMBERS, http://clexit.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/clexit-members.pdf.

330 Willie Soon, INDEP. INST., https://www.independent.org/aboutus/person_detail.asp?id=4035

[https://perma.cc/T3AB-5M5P].

331 Willie Soon, HEARTLAND INST., https://heartland.org/about-us/who-we-are/willie-soon/

[https://perma.cc/CS4M-KVZ...

2025] Uncharitable Think Tanks 225

Public Affair’s book, Climate Change: The Facts 2017.338 Despite its claim

to being authoritative, the book included only contrarians’ writings.339 In

2016, Dr. Soon participated in Freedom Force International’s 3rd Congress,

:{:{titled Global-Warming: An Inconvenient Lie.340}:

Also in 2016, he was the}:

opening presenter at a three-day conference sponsored by Doctors for

Disaster Preparedness, an affiliate of the Oregon Institute for Science and

:{:{Medicine.341}:

In 2015, Dr. Soon was a featured speaker at a Heartland, C-}:

FACT, and CEI “counter-conference” to the UN’s COP21.342 A video of the

proceedings was reposted to Heartland’s website under the heading “Stop the

Climate Treaty.”343 In 2014, Heartland critiqued the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment

climate report—Soon excoriated the findings as inaccurate.344 In 2013, a

subsidiary of C-FACT sponsored Dr. Soon’s participation in a college

campus speaking tour across the Midwest.345 Publicity for the tour

inaccurately referred to him as a “Harvard” astrophysicist.

In sum, the DOTTs leveraged the most effective way to attack the

accuracy of climate science. In order to undercut the public will for climate

protective law reforms, they used contrarian scientists to muddy public

understanding. After the late 2010s, when the science demonstrating

anthropogenic climate change had become virtually irrefutable, the

contrarians became less useful to the DOTTs. Instead of denial, many DOTTs

switched to climate legal obstruction.

notes

338 Willie Soon & Sallie Baliunas, A Brief Review of the Sun-Climate Connection, With New

Insight Concerning Water Vapor, in CLIMATE CHANGE: THE FACTS 2017 163 (Jennifer Marohasy, ed.,...

226 FIU Law Review [Vol. 20:163

---

How a major DOE report hides the whole truth on climate change

...

‘Scientifically invalid’

The DOE report amplifies supposed conflicts among climate scientists — even when there isn’t any.

For example, it’s not true that there is “substantial debate” within climate science over whether the sun could be a primary driver of global warming.

But the DOE report makes that claim nevertheless. The idea has been pushed for years by Willie Soon, a researcher favored by industry groups and promoted by Republican lawmakers.

There’s no dispute among scientists that the sun affects the Earth’s climate. But the idea that it’s responsible for the warming observed over the last 50 years is “considered scientifically invalid,” said Theodosios Chatzistergos, an astrophysicist at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Germany.

Curry said the DOE authors were planning to “modify some of the text” because the group did not have time to review all the references on the topic.

“The impact of solar variations on the climate is uncertain and subject to substantial debate, something that is not evident in the IPCC assessment reports.”

DOE Report

Influence of Total Solar Irradiance on the Earth’s Climate

Biktash (2019)

On the effect of a new grand minimum of solar activity on the future climate on Earth

Feulner & Rahmstorf (2010)

What influence will future solar activity changes over the 21st century have on projected global near-surface temperature changes?

Jones et al. (2012)

Could a future “Grand Solar Minimum” like the Maunder Minimum stop global warming?

Meehl et al. (2013)

Impact of a potential 21st century “grand solar minimum” on surface temperatures and stratospheric ozone

Meehl et al. (2013)

Twenty-First-Century Climate Change Hot Spots in the Light of a Weakening Sun

Spiegl & Langematz (2020)

Possible impacts of a future grand solar minimum on climate: Stratospheric and global circulation changes

Maycock et al. (2015)

Earth's energy imbalance and implications

Hansen et al. (2012)

Solar influences on climate

Gray et al. (2010)

Solar Irradiance Variability and Climate

Solanki et al. (2013)

The report cites a Soon paper to suggest that it’s the sun, not the burning of fossil fuels, that has contributed to global temperature rise.

But that’s just one paper from one researcher. Study after study by climate scientists have debunked that claim over the years.

Research by Soon is cited three times in the report and features prominently as evidence that the sun could be a driver of climate change.

Soon has no formal training as a climatologist — he has a Ph.D. in aerospace engineering — but has repeatedly appeared before Congress as a Republican witness to attack climate science, made frequent appearances in conservative media, and traveled to state capitals with the message that great uncertainty exists about humanity’s role in global warming.

In 2015, the environmental group Greenpeace obtained documents revealing that Soon was secretly paid more than $1.2 million by fossil fuel groups, including Exxon, Southern Co., the American Petroleum Institute and the Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation.

Soon’s research is now funded by the Center for Environmental Research and Earth Science, an LLC he founded that does not disclose its donors.

...

About | CERES Science OFF BS BOGUS

PRETTY WATER PIX MOVING

Our Mission

In recent years, the scientific community appears to have prioritized defining a "scientific consensus" on any scientific topic - especially politically-charged topics. We believe this obsession with "forming a consensus" contradicts the ethos of true scientific inquiry and open-ended scientific research.

Instead, our approach to scientific research is driven by a deep curiosity to continually expand and revisit our understanding of important scientific topics.

The CERES team is led by Dr. Willie Soon, Dr. Ronan Connolly and Dr. Michael Connolly. DIED 2025

We work with many researchers from around the world on multi-disciplinary environmental and Earth science projects.

CERES began in 2018, and has been growing steadily since then.

Dr. Ronan Connolly

I am an independent scientist, environmentalist and writer based in Dublin, Ireland. I have been actively researching climate change since 2009. In 2018, I joined CERES.

About

Academic qualifications

B.Sc. (Hons.) in Chemistry with minor in Mathematics (University College Dublin, 2000)
Ph.D. in Computational Chemistry (University College Dublin, 2003)

Experience

2018-present: Center for Environmental Research and Earth Sciences (_CERES-science.com_)
2009-present: Independent research into climate change
2004-2018: Environmental research into developing sustainable methods of aquaculture, wastewater treatment and heat exchangers

Editorial positions

2024-present: Review Editor for "Climate Detection and Attribution" section of Frontiers in Climate

Other websites

Personal website

Academic platforms:

Follow me on social media

Main platforms:

X (formerly Twitter): @1ronanconnolly
Youtube: @ronanconnollyscience
Bluesky: @ronanconnolly.bsky.social
Telegram: @ronanconnolly
Substack: @ronanconnolly

I also have accounts here:

Peer-reviewed publications

With CERES

V. M. Velasco Herrera, W. Soon, S. Knoška, A. Özgüç, G. Velasco Herrera, H. Yeşilyaprak, N. Babynets, M. Švanda, J. Muraközy, S. Qiu, D. Riveros-Rosas, R. Connolly, M. Connolly, A. Tlatov, L. Cappellotto (2025). "Solar Flare Activity, 1937–2024: Introducing the New Hemispheric Solar Flare Index (hSFI) in the Context of 2024's Major Solar Storm Events". Space Weather, 23:11, e2025SW004515. _https://doi.org/10.1029/2025SW004515_.
G. A. Quinn, R. Connolly, C. ÓhAiseadha, P. Hynds, P. Bagus, R. B. Brown, C. F. Cáceres, C. Craig, M. Connolly, J. L. Domingo, N. Fenton, P. Frijters, S. Hatfill, R. Heymans, A. R. Joffe, R. Jones, G. Lauc, T. Lawrie, R. W. Malone, A. Mordue, G. Mushet, A. O’Connor, J. Orient, J. A. Peña-Ramos, H. A. Risch, J. Rose, A. Sánchez-Bayón, R. F. Savaris, M. C. Schippers, D. Simandan, K. Sikora, W. Soon, Y. Shir-Raz, D. A. Spandidos, B. Spira, A. M. Tsatsakis and H. Walach (2025). "What Lessons can Be Learned From the Management of the COVID-19 Pandemic?" International Journal of Public Health, 70:1607727. _https://doi.org/10.3389/ijph.2025.1607727_.
Ronan Connolly, Willie Soon, Michael Connolly, Rodolfo Gustavo Cionco, Ana G. Elias, Gregory W. Henry, Nicola Scafetta, and Víctor M. Velasco Herrera (2024). "Multiple New or Updated Satellite Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) Composites (1978–2023)". The Astrophysical Journal, 975 (1), 102, _https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7794_. (_Open access_).
Michael Connolly, Orla Dingley, Ronan Connolly, Willie Soon (2024). "Comparing different tropopause estimates from high-resolution ozonesondes". Earth and Space Science. 11 (5), e2024EA003584. _https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EA003584_. (Open access).
Gerry A. Quinn, Michael Connolly, Norman E. Fenton, Steven J. Hatfill, Paul Hynds, Coilín ÓhAiseadha, Karol Sikora, Willie Soon and Ronan Connolly (2024). "Influence of Seasonality and Public-Health Interventions on the COVID-19 Pandemic in Northern Europe" Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13, 334. _https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13020334_. Open access.
W. Soon, R. Connolly, M. Connolly, S.-I. Akasofu, S. Baliunas, J. Berglund, A. Bianchini, W.M. Briggs, C.J. Butler, R.G. Cionco, M. Crok, A.G. Elias, V.M. Fedorov, F. Gervais, H. Harde, G.W. Henry, D.V. Hoyt, O. Humlum, D.R. Legates, A.R. Lupo, S. Maruyama, P. Moore, M. Ogurtsov, C. ÓhAiseadha, M.J. Oliveira, S.-S. Park, S. Qiu, G. Quinn, N. Scafetta, J.-E. Solheim, J. Steele, L. Szarka, H.L. Tanaka, M.K. Taylor, F. Vahrenholt, V.M. Velasco Herrera and W. Zhang (2023). "The Detection and Attribution of Northern Hemisphere Land Surface Warming (1850–2018) in Terms of Human and Natural Factors: Challenges of Inadequate Data", Climate, 11(9), 179; _https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11090179_. Open access.
R. Connolly, W. Soon, M. Connolly, S. Baliunas, J. Berglund, C.J. Butler, R.G. Cionco, A.G. Elias, V. Fedorov, H. Harde, G.W. Henry, D.V. Hoyt, O. Humlum, D.R. Legates, N. Scafetta, J.-E. Solheim, L. Szarka, V.M. Velasco Herrera, H. Yan and W.J. Zhang (2023). "Challenges in the detection and attribution of Northern Hemisphere surface temperature trends since 1850". Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics. _https://doi.org/10.1088/1674-4527/acf18e_. (🗄️). Supplementary Materials.
G. Katata, R. Connolly and P. O’Neill (2023). Evidence of urban blending in homogenized temperature records in Japan and in the United States: implications for the reliability of global land surface air temperature data. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. _https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-22-0122.1_. (🗄️)
C. ÓhAiseadha, G. A. Quinn, R. Connolly, A. Wilson, M. Connolly, W. Soon and P. Hynds (2023). Unintended Consequences of COVID-19 Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions (NPIs) for Population Health and Health Inequalities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(7), 5223. _https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075223_. (_Open access_).
V.M. Velasco Herrera, W. Soon, Š. Knoška, J.A. Perez-Peraza, R.G. Cionco, S.M. Kudryavtsev, S. Qiu, R. Connolly, M. Connolly, M. Švanda, J. Acosta Jara & G. Pietro Gregori (2022). The New Composite Solar Flare Index from Solar Cycle 17 to Cycle 24 (1937 – 2020). Solar Physics, 297, 108. _https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-022-02035-z_. Read-only access to full article. Pre-print version. Supplementary Materials.
O. Dingley, M. Connolly, R. Connolly and W. Soon (2022). A comparison of different metrics for analyzing the troposphere/stratosphere transitions using high-resolution ozonesondes. Environmental Science Proceedings, 19, 14. Proceedings of The 5th International Electronic Conference on Atmospheric Sciences. _https://doi.org/10.3390/ecas2022-12807_. (_Open access_).
P. O'Neill, R. Connolly, M. Connolly, W. Soon, B. Chimani, M. Crok, R. de Vos, H. Harde, P. Kajaba, P. Nojarov, R. Przybylak, D. Rasol, Oleg Skrynyk, Olesya Skrynyk, P. Štěpánek, A. Wypych and P. Zahradníček (2022). Evaluation of the homogenization adjustments applied to European temperature records in the Global Historical Climatology Network dataset. Atmosphere 13(2), 285; _https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020285_. (_🗄️_)
M. Connolly, R. Connolly, W. Soon, V. M. Velasco Herrera, R. G. Cionco and N. E. Quaranta (2021). Analyzing atmospheric circulation patterns using mass fluxes calculated from weather balloon measurements: North Atlantic region as a case study. Atmosphere 12(11), 1439; _https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12111439_. (_🗄️_)
R. Connolly, W. Soon, M. Connolly, S. Baliunas, J. Berglund, C. J. Butler, R. G. Cionco, A. G. Elias, V. M. Fedorov, H. Harde, G. W. Henry, D. V. Hoyt, O. Humlum, D. R. Legates, S. Lüning, N. Scafetta, J.-E. Solheim, L. Szarka, H. van Loon, V. M. Velasco Herrera, R. C. Willson, H. Yan and W. Zhang (2021). How much has the Sun influenced Northern Hemisphere temperature trends? An ongoing debate. Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 21, 131. _https://doi.org/10.1088/1674-4527/21/6/131_. (_🗄️_)
C. ÓhAiseadha, G. Quinn, R. Connolly, M. Connolly and W. Soon (2020). Energy and climate policy — An evaluation of global climate change expenditure 2011–2018. Energies, 13, 4839. _https://doi.org/10.3390/en13184839_. (_🗄️_)
R. Connolly, M. Connolly, R.M. Carter and W. Soon (2020). How much human-caused global warming should we expect with business-as-usual (BAU) climate policies? A semi-empirical assessment. Energies, 13, 1365. _https://doi.org/10.3390/en13061365_. (_🗄️_)
R. Connolly, M. Connolly, W. Soon, D.R. Legates, R.G. Cionco and V. M. Velasco Herrera (2019). Northern hemisphere snow-cover trends (1967-2018): A comparison between climate models and observations. Geosciences, 9(3), 135. _https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9030135_ (_🗄️_)

Previous publications

W.W-H. Soon, Ronan Connolly, M. Connolly, P. O’Neill, J. Zheng, Q. Ge, Z. Hao and H. Yan (2019). Reply to Li & Yang’s comments on “Comparing the current and early 20th century warm periods in China." Earth-Science Reviews. 189, 102950. _https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102950_. (_🗄️_).

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