Esperanto
Esperanto (/ˌɛs.pəˈrɑːn.toʊ, -ˈræn.toʊ/; Esperanto: [espeˈranto])[6][7] is the world's most widely spoken constructed auxiliary language. Created by L. L. Zamenhof in 1887 as 'the International Language' (la Lingvo Internacia), it is intended to be a universal second language for international communication.
Tolstoy became a major supporter of the Esperanto movement
Esperanto culture is grounded in the idea that people can interact on an equal footing across language barriers, without linguistic hierarchies, and with respect for linguistic and cultural diversity[8]. He described the language in Dr. Esperanto's International Language (known as Unua Libro, the 'first book'), which he published under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto. Early adopters of the language liked the name Esperanto ('one who hopes') so much, they soon used it to describe the language itself.[9]
Within the range of constructed languages, Esperanto occupies a middle ground between "naturalistic" (imitating existing natural languages) and a priori (where features are not based on existing languages). Esperanto's vocabulary, syntax, and semantics derive predominantly from languages of the Indo-European group. A substantial majority of its vocabulary (approximately 80%) derives from Romance languages, but it also contains elements derived from Germanic, Greek, and Slavic languages.[10]
One of the language's most notable features is its extensive system of derivation, where prefixes and suffixes may be freely combined with roots to generate words, making it possible to communicate effectively with a smaller set of words.
Esperanto is the most successful constructed international auxiliary language and the only such language with a sizeable population of native speakers (denaskuloj), of which there are an estimated 2,000.[3]
Esperanto speakers are often called Esperantists (Esperantistoj). Usage estimates are difficult, but two estimates put the number of Esperantists at around 100,000.[5] Concentration of speakers is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America. Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, Esperantujo ('Esperanto land') is used as a name for the collection of places where it is spoken. The language has gained a presence on the Internet and is accessible on platforms such as Wikipedia, Amikumu, Google Translate, and Duolingo.[11][12]
Esperanto largely replaced Volapük in the 19th and 20th centuries as the most major international auxiliary language, as many previous Volapükists switched to Esperanto due to its much simpler language structure.[13][14][15] A number of reforms to Esperanto, including an official 1894 proposal by Zamenhof, gender reforms, and "child" languages known as Esperantidos, have been proposed over the years.
History
Main article: History of Esperanto
Background
Prior to the existence of Esperanto, Johann Martin Schleyer (1831 – 1912) already had the idea of creating an international auxiliary language to become the neutral universal second language of humanity, that could be learned by all through the creation of Volapük. His movement demonstrated there was real demand for a neutral common language in the 19th century, as it gained widespread and active usage. However, the internal collapse of the Volapük movement caused its gradual replacement by Esperanto, as many of its speakers joined the Esperanto movement which was linguistically simpler, and lacked central control; many former Volapük clubs became Esperanto clubs. The influence of Volapük was thus a major driver of the initial Esperanto movement, as it set the stage for the widespread usage of constructed languages, though its own usage declined radically.[15][16]
Creation
Zamenhof, c. 1895
The first Esperanto book by L. L. Zamenhof, now known as Unua Libro, published in 1887 in Russian. The title translates to: International Language: Preface and Complete Tutorial.
Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by L. L. Zamenhof, a Jewish ophthalmologist from Białystok, then part of the Russian Empire, but now part of Poland. After several iterations (Proto-Esperanto), he self-published the first book of Esperanto grammar (Unua Libro) on 26 July 1887. He did so under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto (lit. "one who hopes") and simply called the language "the international language" (la lingvo internacia). Early speakers grew fond of the name Esperanto and began to use it as the name for the language.[17]
Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible language that would serve as a universal second language, to foster world peace and international understanding, and to build a "community of speakers".[18] Zamenhof wrote that he wanted humankind to "learn and use ... en masse ... the proposed language as a living one".[19] The goal for Esperanto to become an international auxiliary language was not Zamenhof's only goal; he also wanted to "enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not; in other words, the language is to be directly a means of international communication".[19] His feelings and the situation in Białystok may be gleaned from an extract from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:[20]
...
20th century
Map of Esperanto groups in Europe in 1905.
After the First World War, a great opportunity for Esperanto seemingly presented itself, when the Iranian delegation to the League of Nations proposed that the language be adopted for use in international relations following a report by a Japanese delegate to the League named Nitobe Inazō, in the context of the 13th World Congress of Esperanto, held in Prague.[22] Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux opposed all recognition of Esperanto at the League, from the first resolution on 18 December 1920, and subsequently through all efforts during the next three years.[23]
However, two years later, the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. The French government retaliated by banning all instruction in Esperanto in France's schools and universities.[24][25] The French Ministry of Public Instruction said that "French and English would perish and the literary standard of the world would be debased".[25] Nonetheless, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement. During this time, anarchism as a political movement was very supportive of both anationalism and the Esperanto language.[26]
Fran Novljan was one of the chief promoters of Esperanto in the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia. He was among the founders of the Croatian Prosvjetni savez (Educational Alliance), of which he was the first secretary, and organized Esperanto institutions in Zagreb. Novljan collaborated with Esperanto newspapers and magazines, and was the author of the Esperanto textbook Internacia lingvo esperanto i Esperanto en tridek lecionoj.[27][28]
In 1920s Korea, socialist thinkers pushed for the use of Esperanto through a series of columns in The Dong-a Ilbo as resistance to both Japanese occupation as well as a counter to the growing nationalist movement for Korean language standardization. This lasted until the Mukden Incident in 1931, when changing colonial policy led to an outright ban on Esperanto education in Korea.[29]
Persecution
7th Esperanto congress, Antwerp, August 1911.
Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many states. Repression was especially pronounced in Nazi Germany, Francoist Spain up until the 1950s, and the Soviet Union under Stalin, from 1937 to 1956.
In Nazi Germany, there was a motivation to ban Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish, and due to the internationalist nature of Esperanto, which was perceived as "Bolshevist". In his work Mein Kampf, Adolf Hitler specifically mentions Esperanto as an example of a language that could be used by an international Jewish conspiracy once they achieved world domination.[30]
Esperantists were killed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out to be killed.[31] The efforts of a minority of German Esperantists to expel their Jewish colleagues and overtly align themselves with the Reich were futile, and Esperanto was legally forbidden in 1935. Esperantists in German concentration camps did, however, teach Esperanto to fellow prisoners, telling guards they were teaching Italian, the language of one of Germany's Axis allies.[32]
In Imperial Japan, the left wing of the Japanese Esperanto movement was forbidden, but its leaders were careful enough not to give the impression to the government that the Esperantists were socialist revolutionaries, which proved a successful strategy.[33]
After the October Revolution of 1917, Esperanto was given a measure of government support by the new communist states in the former Russian Empire and later by the Soviet Union government, with the Soviet Esperantist Union being established as an organization that, temporarily, was officially recognized.[34] In his biography on Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky mentions that Stalin had studied Esperanto.[35] However, in 1937, at the height of the Great Purge, Stalin completely reversed the Soviet government's policies on Esperanto; many Esperanto speakers were executed, exiled or held in captivity in the Gulag labour camps.
Quite often the accusation was: "You are an active member of an international spy organization which hides itself under the name of 'Association of Soviet Esperantists' on the territory of the Soviet Union." Until the end of the Stalin era, it was dangerous to use Esperanto in the Soviet Union, even though it was never officially forbidden to speak Esperanto.[32]
Fascist Italy allowed the use of Esperanto, publishing some tourist material in the language.[36][37]
During and after the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain suppressed anarchists, socialists and Catalan nationalists for many years, among whom the use of Esperanto was extensive,[38] but in the 1950s the Esperanto movement was again tolerated.[32]
Modern history
See also: Modern evolution of Esperanto
In 1954, the United Nations — through UNESCO — granted official support to Esperanto as an international auxiliary language in the Montevideo Resolution.[39] However, Esperanto is not one of the six official languages of the UN.[40]
Variant logo for the Esperanto Wikipedia's 200,000-article milestone
The development of Esperanto has continued unabated into the 21st century.[41] The advent of the Internet has had a significant impact on the language, as learning it has become increasingly accessible on platforms such as Duolingo, and as speakers have increasingly networked on platforms such as Amikumu.[11][42] With up to two million speakers, it is the most widely spoken constructed language in the world.[43] Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, Esperantujo ("Esperanto-land") is the name given to the collection of places where it is spoken.[44]
On 22 February 2012, Google Translate added Esperanto as its 64th language.[45] On 25 July 2016, Yandex Translate added Esperanto as a language.[46] ...
Native speakers
Main article: Native Esperanto speakers
Native Esperanto speakers (eo: denaskuloj, lit. 'person from/since birth') have learned the language from birth from Esperanto-speaking parents.[121] This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes occurs in a family of Esperanto speakers who often use the language.[122] In 2004, an estimated 2,000 children in about a thousand families use Esperanto as one of their languages.[123] Citing this research, the 2022 edition of Ethnologue gives 1,000 first language users.[3]
However, native speakers do not occupy an authoritative position in the Esperanto community, as they would in other language communities. This presents a challenge to linguists, whose usual source of grammaticality and meanings are native speakers.[124][125]
Culture
Esperanto books at the World Esperanto Congress, Rotterdam 2008.
Main articles: Esperanto culture, Esperanto literature, Esperanto film, and Esperanto music
Esperantists participate in an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated literature. There are more than 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed Esperanto magazines. In 2013, a museum about Esperanto opened in China.[126] Esperantists use the language for free accommodations with Esperantists in 92 countries using the Pasporta Servo or to develop pen pals through Esperanto Koresponda Servo [eo].[127]
...
Popular culture
Main article: Esperanto in popular culture
In the futuristic novel Lord of the World by Robert Hugh Benson, Esperanto is presented as the predominant language of the world, much as Latin is the language of the Catholic Church.[134] A reference to Esperanto appears in the science-fiction story War with the Newts by Karel Čapek, published in 1936. As part of a passage on what language the salamander-looking creatures with human cognitive ability should learn, it is noted that "...in the Reform schools, Esperanto was taught as the medium of communication." (p. 206).[135]
Esperanto has been used in many films and novels. The Charlie Chaplin film The Great Dictator (1940) showed Jewish ghetto shop signs in Esperanto.[136] Two full-length feature films have been produced with dialogue entirely in Esperanto: Angoroj, in 1964, and Incubus, a 1965 B-movie horror film which is also notable for starring William Shatner shortly before he began working on Star Trek.
In Captain Fantastic (2016) there is a dialogue in Esperanto. The 1994 film Street Fighter contains Esperanto dialogue spoken by the character Sagat. The character Arnold Rimmer in the TV series Red Dwarf shows many attempts to learn Esperanto, as expected of an officer in the Space Corps, something he aspires, but continually fails, to become.[137] ...