RICO tob

see also racketeering, also RAGAsee also RICO GW (claude walker AG VI takedown)see also master settlement disambig= =guk  https://yyy.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jun/30/climate-crimes-oil-and-gas-environment...Drilling down<div><div><div>
</div><div>To Sharon Eubanks the conspiracy to deny science sounded very familiar. From 2000, she led the US justice department’s legal team against nine tobacco firms in one of the largest civil cases filed under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (Rico) Act, which was designed to combat organised crime.</div><div>
</div><div>In 2006, a federal judge found that the industry had spent decades committing a huge fraud on the American public by lying about the dangers of smoking and pushing cigarettes to young people.</div><div>
</div><div>Eubanks said that when she looked at the fossil fuel industry’s strategy, she immediately recognised big tobacco’s playbook.</div><div>
</div><div>“Big oil was engaged in exactly the same type of behaviour that the tobacco companies engaged in and were found liable for fraud on a massive scale,” said Eubanks. “The cover-up, the denial of the problem, the funding of scientists to question the science. The same pattern. And some of the same lawyers represent both tobacco and big oil.”</div><div>
</div><div>The danger for the fossil fuel industry is that the parallels do not end there.</div><div>
</div><div>The legal process is likely to oblige the oil conglomerates to turn over years of internal communications revealing what they knew about climate change, when and how they responded. Given what has already come out from Exxon, they are unlikely to help the industry’s case.</div><div>
</div><div>Eubanks, who is now advising attorneys general and others suing the oil industry, said a turning point in her action against big tobacco came with the discovery of internal company memos in a state case in Minnesota. They included language that talked about recruiting young people as “replacement smokers” for those who died from cigarettes.</div><div>
</div><div>“I think the public was particularly stunned by some of the content of the documents and the talk about the need for bigger bags to take home all the money they were going to make from getting people to smoke,” said Eubanks.</div><div>
</div><div>The exposure of the tobacco companies’ internal communications shifted the public mood and the politics, helping to open the door to legislation to curb smoking that the industry had been successfully resisting for decades.</div><div>
</div><div>Farber, the Berkeley law professor, said the discovery process carries a similar danger for the oil companies because it is likely to expose yet more evidence that they set out to deceive. He said that will undercut any attempt by the energy giants to claim in court that they were ignorant of the damage they were causing.</div><div>
</div><div>Farber said it will also be difficult for the oil industry to resist the weight of US lawsuits, shareholder activism and shifting public and political opinion. “It might push them towards settlement or supporting legislation that releases some from liability in return for some major concessions such as a large tax to finance responses to climate change.”</div><div>
</div><div>The alternative, said Farber, is to take their chance on judges and juries who may be increasingly inclined to take the climate crisis seriously.</div><div>
</div><div>“They may think this is an emergency that requires a response. That the oil companies should be held responsible for the harm they’ve caused and that could be very expensive,” he said. “If they lose, it’s catastrophic ultimately.”</div><div>
</div><div>This story is published as part of Covering Climate Now, a global collaboration of news outlets strengthening coverage of the climate story</div></div><div>
</div></div><div>=</div>=RAGA: DAGAPruitt and other Republican attorneys general have formed with some of the nation’s top energy producers to push back against the Obama regulatory agenda, an investigation by The New York Times has found. Attorneys general in at least a dozen states are working with energy companies and other corporate interests, which in turn are providing them with record amounts of money for their political campaigns, including at least $16 million this year. They share a common philosophy about the reach of the federal government, but the companies also have billions of dollars at stake. And the collaboration is likely to grow: For the first time in modern American history, Republicans in January will control a majority — 27 — of attorneys general’s offices. The Times reported previously how individual attorneys general have shut down investigations, changed policies or agreed to more corporate-friendly settlement terms after intervention by lobbyists and lawyers, many of whom are also campaign benefactors. But the attorneys general are also working collectively. Democrats for more than a decade have teamed up with environmental groups such as the Sierra Club to use the court system to impose stricter regulation. But never before have attorneys general joined on this scale with corporate interests to challenge Washington and file lawsuits in federal court. Out of public view, corporate representatives and attorneys general are coordinating legal strategy and other efforts to fight federal regulations, according to a review of thousands of emails and court documents and dozens of interviews. “When you use a public office, pretty shamelessly, to vouch for a private party with substantial financial interest without the disclosure of the true authorship, that is a dangerous practice,” said David B. Frohnmayer,=<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris</a>United States v. Philip Morris USA, Inc.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[1]</a> was a case in which the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">United States District Court for the District of Columbia</a> held several major tobacco companies liable for violations of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act" title="Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organization (RICO) Act</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-2" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[2]</a> by engaging in numerous acts of fraud to further a conspiracy to deceive the American public about nicotine addiction and the health effects of cigarettes and environmental tobacco smoke.Judge <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler" title="Gladys Kessler" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">Gladys Kessler</a> found that the evidence overwhelmingly established that the companies violated RICO by coordinating their public relations, research, and marketing efforts in order to advance their scheme to defraud by denying the adverse health effects of smoking, denying the addictiveness of nicotine, denying their manipulation of the nicotine content of cigarettes, and denying that their marketing targeted youth as new smokers. The companies also suppressed and destroyed information related to the dangers of smoking in order to maximize their profits and enhance the market for cigarettes.<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading" style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); background-color: rgb(248, 249, 250); padding: 7px; display: table;"><ul style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0.3em 0px; padding: 0px; list-style-type: none;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Trial" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">1Trial</a><ul style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-type: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Complaint" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">1.1Complaint</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Proceedings" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">1.2Proceedings</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Opinion_of_the_court" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2Opinion of the court</a><ul style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-type: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Prohibition_of_Brand_Descriptors" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2.1Prohibition of Brand Descriptors</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Corrective_Communications" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2.2Corrective Communications</a></li><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Disclosure_of_Documents_and_Disaggregated_Marketing_Data" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2.3Disclosure of Documents and Disaggregated Marketing Data</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Outcome" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">3Outcome</a><ul style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px; list-style-type: none;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Challenges_to_the_Corrective_Statements" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">3.1Challenges to the Corrective Statements</a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#See_also" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4See also</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#Further_reading" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">5Further reading</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#References" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">6References</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Trial[</h2><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Complaint[</h3>On September 22, 1999, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; text-decoration-line: none;">United States Department of Justice</a> brought a lawsuit against nine cigarette manufacturers and two tobacco industry trade associations <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-3" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[3]</a> in the United States District Court of the District of Columbia ("District Court"). The complaint alleged that the tobacco companies had engaged in an approximately fifty-year conspiracy to fraudulently deceive the American public about the health effects of smoking and environmental tobacco smoke, the addictiveness of nicotine, the health benefits from low tar, "light" cigarettes, and their manipulation of the design and composition of cigarettes in order to sustain nicotine addiction. According to the complaint, the tobacco companies deliberately sought to deny that smoking caused disease and to maintain that there was no scientific consensus on the subject. In furtherance of this strategy, Defendants allegedly issued deceptive press releases, published false and misleading articles, destroyed and concealed documents which indicated that there was in fact a correlation between smoking and disease, and aggressively targeted children as potential new smokers.The lawsuit sought to recover health care expenditures the government had paid and would have to pay to treat tobacco-related illnesses as a result of the tobacco companies' unlawful action under three federal statutes: the Medical Care Recovery Act ("MCRA),<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a> the Medicare Secondary Payer ("MSP") provisions,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-5" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[5]</a> and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ("RICO").<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-6" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[6]</a> Additionally, the government requested injunctive relief under the RICO Act to prevent the tobacco companies from engaging in further fraud and to disgorge the companies' ill-gotten proceeds from their illegal activity.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Proceedings[</h3>Defendants moved to dismiss the case on all counts, and in September 2000, the District Court granted their motion in part, dismissing the MCRA and MSP claims and preventing the government from recovering tobacco-related health care expenditures. However, the court allowed the case to proceed on the RICO claims. Under RICO, the Government sought injunctive relief and $289 billion in disgorgement of defendants' ill-gotten gains from the alleged conspiracy. Defendants appealed the requested relief to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit" style="background: none; text-decoration-line: none;">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> ("DC Circuit"). On interlocutory appeal, the DC Circuit determined that disgorgement is not a permissible remedy in civil RICO cases because injunctive relief must be "forward looking" to prevent and restrain future violations.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-7" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[7]</a>The Government continued to seek monetary damages to fund smoking cessation and prevention programs, and in 2005, the Department of Justice amended its requested relief for these programs from $130 billion over 25 years to $14 billion over ten years. At this time, several public health groups joined the lawsuit as intervenors for the purpose of asserting their interests in the proposed relief.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-8" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[8]</a><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Opinion of the court[</h2>On August 17, 2006, Judge Gladys Kessler issued a landmark 1,683-page opinion holding the tobacco companies liable for conspiracy and violations of RICO by fraudulently covering up the health risks associated with cigarettes and for marketing their products to children.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-9" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[9]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-10" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[10]</a> Kessler wrote that the tobacco companies "have marketed and sold their lethal product with zeal, with deception, with a single-minded focus on their financial success, and without regard for the human tragedy or social costs that success exacted."Because the DC Circuit held that RICO permits only forward-looking remedies to prevent and restrain future violations, Judge Kessler ruled that the tobacco companies could not be made to fund the smoking cessation and awareness programs. The ruling ordered the following injunctive relief:<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Prohibition of Brand Descriptors[</h3>The court found that the only way to restrain defendants from their longstanding and continuing fraudulent efforts to deceive smokers, potential smokers, and the American public about "light" and "low tar" cigarettes was to prohibit them from using any descriptor which conveys a health message. Accordingly, Judge Kessler enjoined defendants from using any descriptors indicating lower tar delivery—including, but not limited to, "low tar," "light," "mild," "medium" and "ultra-light"—which create the false impression that such cigarettes are less harmful to smokers.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Corrective Communications[</h3>The trial record established that defendants had made false, deceptive, and misleading public statements about cigarettes, and the court found that an injunction ordering them to issue corrective statements is appropriate and necessary to prevent and restrain them from making fraudulent public statements on smoking and health matters in the future.Judge Kessler ordered defendants to make corrective statements about: (1) addiction, (2) the adverse health effects of smoking), (3) the adverse health effects of exposure to second-hand smoke, (4) the manipulation of the cigarettes to enhance nicotine delivery, and (5) the health benefits of "light" and "low tar" cigarettes. Defendants were required to publish these statements in newspapers and disseminate them through television, advertisements, onsets, in retail displays, and on their corporate websites.<h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Disclosure of Documents and Disaggregated Marketing Data[</h3>The court determined that defendants' suppression and concealment of information was integral to their efforts to defraud the American public, and that defendants had failed to disclose, and created false controversy over the existence of, information they possessed about cigarettes.Judge Kessler ordered that the tobacco companies must create and maintain document depositories and websites which provide the government and the public with access to all industry documents disclosed in the litigation. Additionally, defendants must provide their disaggregated marketing data to the government to ensure transparency of their marketing efforts, particularly those directed towards youth.<h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Outcome[</h2>All parties appealed Judge Kessler's 2006 decision to the DC Circuit. In 2009, a three-judge panel unanimously upheld Judge Kessler's finding of liability and upheld most of the ordered remedies.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-11" style="text-decoration-line: none; background-image: none; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;">[11]</a> A subsequent appeal was rejected by the Supreme Court.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-12" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[12]</a><h3 style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 1.6; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Challenges to the Corrective Statements[</h3>Judge Kessler ordered the tobacco companies to make corrective statements on five topics about which they had historically deceived and misled the public. The specific language of these statements was not included in the 2006 ruling, but the parties were to submit proposals for approval by the court. The tobacco companies appealed to the DC Circuit, challenging the corrective-disclosure remedy under both RICO and the First Amendment.The DC Circuit upheld the corrective statements as a valid remedy in 2009, finding that requiring defendants to reveal the previously hidden truth about their products will prevent and restrain them from disseminating false and misleading statements, thereby violating RICO, in the future. However, the statements must be confined to purely factual and uncontroversial information, intended to thwart efforts to either directly mislead consumers or capitalize on prior deceptions by continuing to advertise in a manner that builds on consumers' existing misperceptions. The DC Circuit also vacated a requirement that the statements be published on retail displays, instructing the District Court to consider the third-party implications of this remedy on remand.In 2012, Judge Kessler released specific language for the five corrective statements based on proposals submitted by all parties after the 2009 DC Circuit ruling. The tobacco companies were ordered to make the corrective statements through television and newspaper advertising, on their websites, and on cigarette packaging. In a series of subsequent appeals, defendants challenged the language proposed by the court, claiming that portions of the selected text violated their First Amendment rights and were intended to humiliate them and disclose prior wrongdoing rather than prevent and restrain future RICO violations.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-13" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[13]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v.Philip_Morris#cite_note-14" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[14]</a> These appeals resulted in modifications to the language of proposed statements.The language of the corrective statements was not finalized until June 2017. Still at issue is whether the court can order the corrective statements be posted at retail establishments – or the "point-of-sale" ("POS") – for tobacco products.<h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">See also[</h2><ul style="list-style-image: url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" bullet-icon.svg="bullet-icon.svg" d4515="d4515" margin="margin" em="em" px="px" padding="padding" background-color="background-color" rgb="rgb"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_control" title="Tobacco control" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Tobacco Control</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_politics" title="Tobacco politics" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Tobacco Litigation</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_Master_Settlement_Agreement" title="Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_packaging_warning_messages" title="Tobacco packaging warning messages" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Tobacco Packaging Warning Messages</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">US Tobacco Industry</a></li></ul><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Further reading[</h2><ul style="list-style-image: url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" bullet-icon.svg="bullet-icon.svg" d4515="d4515" margin="margin" em="em" px="px" padding="padding" background-color="background-color" rgb="rgb"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tobaccofreekids.org/what-we-do/industry-watch/doj/timeline" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">Timeline of the Litigation and Links to Court Documents</a>, Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tobacco-on-trial.com/" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">Tobacco on Trial – Blogging U.S. v. Philip Morris</a>. Chronological record of legal events occurring in this lawsuit</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publichealthlawcenter.org/topics/special-collections/verdict-findings-united-states-v-philip-morris-collection" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">The Verdict Is In: Findings From United States v. Philip Morris Collection</a>. A compilation of select quotes from the U.S. District Court final opinion in U.S. v. Philip Morris</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tobacco.neu.edu/litigation/cases/DOJ/doj_opinion_summary.pdf" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: url(" upload.wikimedia.org="upload.wikimedia.org" wikipedia="wikipedia" commons="commons" icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif="Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif" right="right" center="center" no-repeat="no-repeat" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">U.S.A. v. Philip Morris USA, Inc., et al.: Analysis of Judge Kessler’s Final Opinion and Order</a>, Sara Guardino et al, Tobacco Control Resource Center (2007).</li></ul><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">References</h2><div>...</div>[[In a 2005 study funded by Electric Power Research Institute, Enstrom failed to find a “relationship between fine particulate pollution and total mortality in elderly Californians,” in contrast to conclusions reached in previous work by the American Cancer Society.]]
2006 Tobacco RICO case included documents on his funding and work. 
[[... Enstrom got his own chapter — one of just three scientists singled out by DOJ out of many dozens of tobacco-funded researchers for having been vital to the industry's efforts to sow confusion about the health effects of smoking.
U.S. District Court Judge Gladys Kessler apparently agreed on Enstrom's role, singling out his work for extensive treatment in a scathing 1652-page final opinion in 2006 in which she ruled that the tobacco companies were indeed a “racketeer influenced and corrupt organization” under the RICO law, a decision upheld by the Supreme Court.]]Gladys Kessler (born January 22, 1938) is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_judge" title="United States federal judge" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Senior United States District Judge</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">United States District Court for the District of Columbia</a>.<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading" style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); background-color: rgb(248, 249, 250); padding: 7px; display: table;"><ul style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0.3em 0px; padding: 0px; list-style-type: none;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#Biography" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">1Biography</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#District_Court_service" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">2District Court service</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#Detainee_treatment_cases" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">3Detainee treatment cases</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#References" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">4References</a></li><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#External_links" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">5External links</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Biography[</h2>After receiving her <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Bachelor of Arts</a> degree from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Cornell University</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Bachelor of Laws</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Harvard Law School</a>, she was hired by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">National Labor Relations Board</a>. She worked as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_assistant" title="Legislative assistant" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">legislative assistant</a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senator" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Senator" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">United States Senator</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison_A.Williams" title="Harrison A. Williams" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Harrison A. Williams</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">D</a>–<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">NJ</a>), and subsequently for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congressman" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Congressman" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">United States Congressman</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_B.Bingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan B. Bingham" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Jonathan B. Bingham</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">D</a>–<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York(state)" title="New York (state)" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">NY</a>). Kessler worked for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">New York City</a> Board of Education, and then opened a public interest law firm. In June 1977, she was appointed Associate Judge of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_Court_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Superior Court of the District of Columbia" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Superior Court of the District of Columbia</a>, and from 1981 to 1985 served as Presiding Judge of the Family Division. She was President of the National Association of Women Judges from 1983 to 1984, and currently serves on the Executive Committee of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">American Bar Association</a> Conference of Federal Trial Judges and the U.S. Judicial Conference's Committee on Court Administration and Management.<h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">District Court service[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gladys_Kessler&action=edit&section=2&editintro=Template:BLP_editintro" title="Edit section: District Court service" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2>On March 22, 1994, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">President Clinton</a> nominated Kessler to serve as a United States District Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, to the seat vacated by Judge <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Boudin" title="Michael Boudin" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Michael Boudin</a>. She was confirmed by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Senate</a> on June 15, 1994 and received her commission on June 16, 1994. She took senior status on January 22, 2007 and was succeeded by Judge <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Berman_Jackson" title="Amy Berman Jackson" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Amy Berman Jackson</a>.<h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Detainee treatment cases[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gladys_Kessler&action=edit&section=3&editintro=Template:BLP_editintro" title="Edit section: Detainee treatment cases" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2>Kessler is the first judge to consider an appeal that the Executive branch is violating the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detainee_Treatment_Act" title="Detainee Treatment Act" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Detainee Treatment Act</a>. In 2006, she heard the case of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Bawazir" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Bawazir" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Mohammad Bawazir</a>, a prisoner at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Camp Delta" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Camp Delta</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W.Bush_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Bush Administration" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">George W. Bush Administration</a> argued that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detainee_Treatment_Act" title="Detainee Treatment Act" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Detainee Treatment Act</a>, legislation spearheaded by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">John McCain</a> banning cruel or inhuman treatment, did not apply to Bawazir and other detainees at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Guantanamo Bay detention camp</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Cuba</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_note-Guan-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a>On October 10, 2007, the Washington Post headlined "Judge Orders U.S. Not to Transfer Tunisian Detainee," and reported that Judge Kessler "ruled last week that Mohammed Abdul Rahman cannot be sent [from Guantanamo] to Tunisia because he could suffer 'irreparable harm." The detainee's lawyer said, "The executive has now been told it cannot bury its Guantanamo mistakes in Third World prisons." He also stated that, "This is the first time the judicial branch has exercised its inherent power to control the excesses of the executive as to treatment of prisoners at Guantanamo Bay."<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_note-Guan-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[1]</a>Kessler twice denied relief to detainee <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihad_Ahmed_Mustafa_Dhiab" title="Jihad Ahmed Mustafa Dhiab" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Jihad Ahmed Mustafa Dhiab</a>, first determining that she had no jurisdiction over his confinement conditions, and, after that theory was rejected by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a>, that the government was permitted to use <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force-feeding" title="Force-feeding" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">force-feedings</a> on detainees during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_hunger_strikes" title="Guantanamo Bay hunger strikes" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Guantanamo Bay hunger strikes</a>.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_note-2" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[2]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_note-3" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[3]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_note-4" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[4]</a> Kessler did, however, twice grant news media requests for access to classified video of the force-feedings, before ultimately being reversed by the D.C. Circuit.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_note-5" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[5]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_note-6" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">[6]</a><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">References[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gladys_Kessler&action=edit&section=4&editintro=Template:BLP_editintro" title="Edit section: References" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2><div class="reflist" style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); list-style-type: decimal;"><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references" style="margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px; list-style-image: none; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 list-item 0; list-style-type: inherit;"><li id="cite_note-Guan-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_ref-Guan_1-0" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="user-select: none; top: -99999px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); overflow: hidden; position: absolute !important; padding: 0px !important; border: 0px !important; height: 1px !important; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:a</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_ref-Guan_1-1" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFWhiteLeonnig2006" class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">White, Josh; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_D._Leonnig" title="Carol D. Leonnig" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Leonnig, Carol D.</a> (3 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/02/AR2006030202054.html" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">"U.S. Cites Exception in Torture Ban"</a> – via washingtonpost.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Cites+Exception+in+Torture+Ban&rft.date=2006-03-03&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft.au=Leonnig%2C+Carol+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F03%2F02%2FAR2006030202054.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGladys+Kessler" class="Z3988" /></li><li id="cite_note-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_ref-2" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">^{</a> }<cite id="CITEREFNote2018" style="font-style: inherit;">Note, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/902-909_Online.pdf" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: url(" upload.wikimedia.org="upload.wikimedia.org" wikipedia="wikipedia" commons="commons" icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif="Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif" right="right" center="center" no-repeat="no-repeat" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">Recent Case: D.C. Circuit Holds Press Cannot Unseal Classified Videos of Guantanamo Bay Detainee</a>, 131 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Harv. L. Rev.</a> 902 (2018)</cite>.</li><li id="cite_note-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_ref-3" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">^{</a> }<cite style="font-style: inherit;">Dhiab v. Obama</cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15985808099114059442" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">952 F. Supp. 2d 154</a> (D.D.C. 2013).</li><li id="cite_note-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_ref-4" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">^{</a> }<cite style="font-style: inherit;">Dhiab v. Obama</cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=6346786713402353664" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">74 F. Supp. 3d 16</a> (D.D.C. 2014).</li><li id="cite_note-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_ref-5" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">^{</a> }<cite style="font-style: inherit;">Dhiab v. Obama</cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=11011802769676221829" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">70 F. Supp. 3d 486</a> (D.D.C. 2014).</li><li id="cite_note-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Kessler#cite_ref-6" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">^{</a> }<cite style="font-style: inherit;">Dhiab v. Obama</cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=4377130540591240688" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">141 F. Supp. 3d 23</a> (D.D.C. 2015).</li></ol></div></div><h2 style="margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">External links[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gladys_Kessler&action=edit&section=5&editintro=Template:BLP_editintro" title="Edit section: External links" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none; white-space: nowrap;">edit</a>]</h2><ul style="list-style-image: url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" bullet-icon.svg="bullet-icon.svg" d4515="d4515" margin="margin" em="em" px="px" padding="padding" background-color="background-color" rgb="rgb"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fjc.gov/node/1383281" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent) right center no-repeat, url(" w="w" skins="skins" vector="Vector" resources="resources" skins.vector.styles="skins.vector.styles" images="images" external-link-ltr-icon.svg="external-link-ltr-icon.svg" b4b84="b4b84" padding-right="padding-right" px="px">Gladys Kessler</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_Federal_Judges" title="Biographical Directory of Federal Judges" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Biographical Directory of Federal Judges</a>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">public domain</a> publication of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Judicial_Center" title="Federal Judicial Center" style="text-decoration-line: none; background: none;">Federal Judicial Center</a>.</li></ul><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act</a>

Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, commonly referred to as the RICO Act or simply RICO, is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_law" title="United States federal law" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">United States federal law</a> that provides for extended criminal penalties and a civil <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">cause of action</a> for acts performed as part of an ongoing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_organization" title="Criminal organization" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">criminal organization</a>. The RICO Act focuses specifically on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">racketeering</a>, and it allows the leaders of a syndicate to be tried for the crimes which they <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirty_hands" title="Dirty hands" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">ordered</a> others to do <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enmund_v._Florida" title="Enmund v. Florida" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">or assisted them</a>, closing a perceived loophole that allowed someone who told a man to, for example, murder, to be exempt from the trial because he did not actually commit the crime personally.

RICO was enacted by section 901(a) of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organized_Crime_Control_Act" title="Organized Crime Control Act" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Organized Crime Control Act</a> of 1970 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.cornell.edu/jureeka/index.php?doc=USPubLaws&cong=91&no=452" style="font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" base64="base64" pd94bwwgdmvyc2lvbj0ims4wiiblbmnvzgluzz0ivvrgltgiihn0yw5kywxvbmu9im5vij8="PD94bWwgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4wIiBlbmNvZGluZz0iVVRGLTgiIHN0YW5kYWxvbmU9Im5vIj8" 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"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" ciagicagidxwyxrociagicagicagihnvzglwb2rpom5vzgv0exblcz0iy2njy2njy2miciagicagicagiglua3njyxblomnvbm5ly3rvci1jdxj2yxr1cmu9ijaiciagicagicagiglkpsjwyxrondc3osikicagicagicagzd0ibsa4mdaunja5ndysnjk4ljawmjq0idmundy5odysmy40mzg2nsatmi41nzayldagmcw0lja3ndm2ic0xljcznjismcawlc00lja3ndm2ic0yljyxnzu0lc0zljzlltqgeiikicagicagicagc3r5bgu9imzpbgw6i2zmzmzmzjtmawxslw9wywnpdhk6mttzdhjva2u6bm9uzsiglz4kicagidwvzz4kica8l2c="CiAgICAgIDxwYXRoCiAgICAgICAgIHNvZGlwb2RpOm5vZGV0eXBlcz0iY2NjY2NjY2MiCiAgICAgICAgIGlua3NjYXBlOmNvbm5lY3Rvci1jdXJ2YXR1cmU9IjAiCiAgICAgICAgIGlkPSJwYXRoNDc3OSIKICAgICAgICAgZD0ibSA4MDAuNjA5NDYsNjk4LjAwMjQ0IDMuNDY5ODYsMy40Mzg2NSAtMi41NzAyLDAgMCw0LjA3NDM2IC0xLjczNjIsMCAwLC00LjA3NDM2IC0yLjYxNzU0LC0zLjZlLTQgeiIKICAgICAgICAgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I2ZmZmZmZjtmaWxsLW9wYWNpdHk6MTtzdHJva2U6bm9uZSIgLz4KICAgIDwvZz4KICA8L2c" cjwvc3znpgo="); padding-right: 13px; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat;" xmlns:data="data">Pub.L. 91–452</a>, 84 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large" style="font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/STATUTE-84/STATUTE-84-Pg922/content-detail.html" style="font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" base64="base64" pd94bwwgdmvyc2lvbj0ims4wiiblbmnvzgluzz0ivvrgltgiihn0yw5kywxvbmu9im5vij8="PD94bWwgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4wIiBlbmNvZGluZz0iVVRGLTgiIHN0YW5kYWxvbmU9Im5vIj8" 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"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" ciagicagidxwyxrociagicagicagihnvzglwb2rpom5vzgv0exblcz0iy2njy2njy2miciagicagicagiglua3njyxblomnvbm5ly3rvci1jdxj2yxr1cmu9ijaiciagicagicagiglkpsjwyxrondc3osikicagicagicagzd0ibsa4mdaunja5ndysnjk4ljawmjq0idmundy5odysmy40mzg2nsatmi41nzayldagmcw0lja3ndm2ic0xljcznjismcawlc00lja3ndm2ic0yljyxnzu0lc0zljzlltqgeiikicagicagicagc3r5bgu9imzpbgw6i2zmzmzmzjtmawxslw9wywnpdhk6mttzdhjva2u6bm9uzsiglz4kicagidwvzz4kica8l2c="CiAgICAgIDxwYXRoCiAgICAgICAgIHNvZGlwb2RpOm5vZGV0eXBlcz0iY2NjY2NjY2MiCiAgICAgICAgIGlua3NjYXBlOmNvbm5lY3Rvci1jdXJ2YXR1cmU9IjAiCiAgICAgICAgIGlkPSJwYXRoNDc3OSIKICAgICAgICAgZD0ibSA4MDAuNjA5NDYsNjk4LjAwMjQ0IDMuNDY5ODYsMy40Mzg2NSAtMi41NzAyLDAgMCw0LjA3NDM2IC0xLjczNjIsMCAwLC00LjA3NDM2IC0yLjYxNzU0LC0zLjZlLTQgeiIKICAgICAgICAgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I2ZmZmZmZjtmaWxsLW9wYWNpdHk6MTtzdHJva2U6bm9uZSIgLz4KICAgIDwvZz4KICA8L2c" cjwvc3znpgo="); padding-right: 13px; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat;" xmlns:data="data">922</a>, enacted October 15, 1970). RICO is codified as Chapter 96 of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code" style="font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Title 18 of the United States Code</a>, 18 U.S.C. § 1961–1968. Under the close supervision of Senator John Little McClellan, the Chairman of the Committee for which he worked, G. Robert Blakey drafted the "RICO Act," Title IX of the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970, signed into law by Richard M. Nixon.[1]<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px;">While its original use in the 1970s was to prosecute the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mafia" title="American Mafia" style="font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Mafia</a> as well as others who were actively engaged in organized crime, its later application has been more widespread.

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Summary" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">1 Summary</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#RICO_predicate_offenses" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">2 RICO predicate offenses</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Application_of_RICO_laws" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">3 Application of RICO laws</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Famous_cases" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4 Famous cases</a>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Hells_Angels_Motorcycle_Club" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.1 Hells Angels Motorcycle Club</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Frank_Tieri" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.2 Frank Tieri</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Catholic_sex_abuse_cases" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.3 Catholic sex abuse cases</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Gil_Dozier" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.4 Gil Dozier</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Michael_Milken" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.6 Michael Milken</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Major_League_Baseball" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.7 Major League Baseball</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Pro-life_activists" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.8 Pro-life activists</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Los_Angeles_Police_Department" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.9 Los Angeles Police Department</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Mohawk_Industries" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.10 Mohawk Industries</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Latin_Kings" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.11 Latin Kings</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Gambino_crime_family" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.12 Gambino crime family</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Lucchese_Crime_Family" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.13 Lucchese Crime Family</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Chicago_Outfit" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.14 Chicago Outfit</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Michael_Conahan_and_Mark_Ciavarella" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.15 Michael Conahan and Mark Ciavarella</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Scott_W._Rothstein" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.16 Scott W. Rothstein</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#AccessHealthSource" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">4.17 AccessHealthSource</a></li>

</ul>

</li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#International_equivalents_to_RICO" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">5 International equivalents to RICO</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#References" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">7 References</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#Further_reading" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">8 Further reading</a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26" style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#External_links" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">9 External links</a></li></ul></div>

<h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Summary<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[</h2>

When the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Attorney" title="U.S. Attorney" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">U.S. Attorney</a> decides to indict someone under RICO, he or she has the option of seeking a pre-trial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restraining_order" title="Restraining order" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">restraining order</a> or injunction to temporarily seize a defendant's assets and prevent the transfer of potentially forfeitable property, as well as require the defendant to put up a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_bond" title="Performance bond" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">performance bond</a>. This provision was placed in the law because the owners of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mafia" title="Mafia" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Mafia</a>-related <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_corporation" title="Shell corporation" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">shell corporations</a> often absconded with the assets. An injunction and/or performance bond ensures that there is something to seize in the event of a guilty verdict.

In many cases, the threat of a RICO indictment can force defendants to plead guilty to lesser charges, in part because the seizure of assets would make it difficult to pay a defense <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">attorney</a>. Despite its harsh provisions, a RICO-related charge is considered easy to prove in court, as it focuses on patterns of behavior as opposed to criminal acts.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-Time-1" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a>

There is also a provision for private parties to sue. A "person damaged in his business or property" can sue one or more "racketeers". The plaintiff must prove the existence of an "enterprise". The defendant(s) are not the enterprise; in other words, the defendant(s) and the enterprise are not one and the same.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-2" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a> There must be one of four specified relationships between the defendant(s) and the enterprise: either the defendant(s) invested the proceeds of the pattern of racketeering activity into the enterprise; or the defendant(s) acquired or maintained an interest in, or control over, the enterprise through the pattern of racketeering activity; or the defendant(s) conducted or participated in the affairs of the enterprise "through" the pattern of racketeering activity; or the defendant(s) conspired to do one of the above.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-3" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a> In essence, the enterprise is either the 'prize,' 'instrument,' 'victim,' or 'perpetrator' of the racketeers.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-4" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a> A civil RICO action can be filed in state or federal court.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-5" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a>

Both the federal and civil components allow the recovery of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treble_damages" title="Treble damages" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">treble damages</a>.

Although its primary intent was to deal with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">organized crime</a>, Blakey said that Congress never intended it to merely apply to the Mob. He once told <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Time</a>, "We don't want one set of rules for people whose collars are blue or whose names end in vowels, and another set for those whose collars are white and have <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Ivy League</a> diplomas."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-Time-1" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a>

<h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">RICO predicate offenses<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[</h2>

<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Under the law, the meaning of racketeering activity is set out at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/18/1961.html" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" base64="base64" pd94bwwgdmvyc2lvbj0ims4wiiblbmnvzgluzz0ivvrgltgiihn0yw5kywxvbmu9im5vij8="PD94bWwgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4wIiBlbmNvZGluZz0iVVRGLTgiIHN0YW5kYWxvbmU9Im5vIj8" 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"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" ciagicagidxwyxrociagicagicagihnvzglwb2rpom5vzgv0exblcz0iy2njy2njy2miciagicagicagiglua3njyxblomnvbm5ly3rvci1jdxj2yxr1cmu9ijaiciagicagicagiglkpsjwyxrondc3osikicagicagicagzd0ibsa4mdaunja5ndysnjk4ljawmjq0idmundy5odysmy40mzg2nsatmi41nzayldagmcw0lja3ndm2ic0xljcznjismcawlc00lja3ndm2ic0yljyxnzu0lc0zljzlltqgeiikicagicagicagc3r5bgu9imzpbgw6i2zmzmzmzjtmawxslw9wywnpdhk6mttzdhjva2u6bm9uzsiglz4kicagidwvzz4kica8l2c="CiAgICAgIDxwYXRoCiAgICAgICAgIHNvZGlwb2RpOm5vZGV0eXBlcz0iY2NjY2NjY2MiCiAgICAgICAgIGlua3NjYXBlOmNvbm5lY3Rvci1jdXJ2YXR1cmU9IjAiCiAgICAgICAgIGlkPSJwYXRoNDc3OSIKICAgICAgICAgZD0ibSA4MDAuNjA5NDYsNjk4LjAwMjQ0IDMuNDY5ODYsMy40Mzg2NSAtMi41NzAyLDAgMCw0LjA3NDM2IC0xLjczNjIsMCAwLC00LjA3NDM2IC0yLjYxNzU0LC0zLjZlLTQgeiIKICAgICAgICAgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I2ZmZmZmZjtmaWxsLW9wYWNpdHk6MTtzdHJva2U6bm9uZSIgLz4KICAgIDwvZz4KICA8L2c" cjwvc3znpgo="); padding-right: 13px; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat;" xmlns:data="data">§ 1961</a>. As currently amended it includes:

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Any violation of state statutes against <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">gambling</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder" title="Murder" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">murder</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">kidnapping</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">extortion</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arson" title="Arson" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">arson</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">robbery</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">bribery</a>, dealing in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">obscene matter</a>, or dealing in a controlled substance or listed chemical (as defined in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled_Substances_Act" title="Controlled Substances Act" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Controlled Substances Act</a>);</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Any act of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">bribery</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeiting" title="Counterfeiting" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">counterfeiting</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theft" title="Theft" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">theft</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">embezzlement</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">fraud</a>, dealing in obscene matter, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice" title="Obstruction of justice" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">obstruction of justice</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">slavery</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">racketeering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">gambling</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">money laundering</a>, commission of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder-for-hire" title="Murder-for-hire" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">murder-for-hire</a>, and many other offenses covered under the Federal criminal code (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Title 18</a>);</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Embezzlement</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">union</a> funds;</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_the_United_States" title="Bankruptcy in the United States" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Bankruptcy</a> fraud or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securities_fraud" title="Securities fraud" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">securities fraud</a>;</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_trafficking" title="Drug trafficking" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Drug trafficking</a>; long-term and elaborate drug networks can also be prosecuted using the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuing_Criminal_Enterprise" title="Continuing Criminal Enterprise" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Continuing Criminal Enterprise Statute</a>;</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Criminal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">copyright infringement</a>;</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Money laundering</a> and related offenses;</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Bringing in, aiding or assisting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">aliens</a> in illegally entering the country (if the action was for financial gain);</li>

<li style=" margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Acts of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">terrorism</a>.</li>

</ul>

<h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Application of RICO laws<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[</h2>

Violations of the RICO laws can be alleged in civil lawsuit cases or for criminal charges. In these instances charges can be brought against individuals or corporations in retaliation for said individuals or corporations working with law enforcement. Further, charges can also be brought against individuals or corporations who have sued or filed criminal charges against a defendant.

Anti-SLAPP (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_lawsuit_against_public_participation" title="Strategic lawsuit against public participation" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">strategic lawsuit against public participation</a>) laws can be applied in an attempt to curb alleged <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barratry_(common_law)" title="Barratry (common law)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">abuses of the legal system</a> by individuals or corporations who utilize the courts as a weapon to retaliate against <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistle_blowers" title="Whistle blowers" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">whistle blowers</a>, victims, or to silence another's speech. RICO could be alleged if it can be shown that lawyers and/or their clients conspired and collaborated to concoct fictitious legal complaints solely in retribution and retaliation for themselves having been brought before the courts.

Although the RICO laws may cover drug trafficking crimes in addition to other more traditional RICO predicate acts such as extortion, blackmail, and racketeering, large-scale and organized drug networks are now commonly prosecuted under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuing_Criminal_Enterprise" title="Continuing Criminal Enterprise" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Continuing Criminal Enterprise Statute</a>, also known as the "Kingpin Statute". The CCE laws target only traffickers who are responsible for long-term and elaborate conspiracies; whereas the RICO law covers a variety of organized criminal behaviors.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-NCJRS-6" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a>

<h2 style="font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Famous cases<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Famous cases" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h2>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Hells Angels Motorcycle Club<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hells Angels Motorcycle Club" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Frank Tieri<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Frank Tieri" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Catholic sex abuse cases<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Catholic sex abuse cases" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Gil Dozier<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gil Dozier" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

On September 7, 1988, Milken's employer, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drexel_Burnham_Lambert" title="Drexel Burnham Lambert" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Drexel Burnham Lambert</a>, was alleged to have participated in committing an element of RICO. They were later indicted under the legal doctrine that corporations are responsible for their employees' crimes. Drexel avoided RICO charges by pleading <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nolo_contendere" title="Nolo contendere" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">no contest</a> to lesser felonies. While many sources say that Drexel pleaded guilty, in truth the firm only admitted it was "not in a position to dispute the allegations." If Drexel had been indicted, it would have had to post a performance bond of up to $1 billion to avoid having its assets frozen. This would have taken precedence over all of the firm's other obligations—including the loans that provided 96 percent of its capital. If the bond ever had to be paid, its shareholders would have been practically wiped out. Since banks will not extend credit to a firm indicted under RICO, an indictment would have likely put Drexel out of business.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-April_Fools-15" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Major League Baseball<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Major League Baseball" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none;">Pro-life activists<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pro-life activists" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Los Angeles Police Department<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Los Angeles Police Department" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

<h3 style="font-weight: bold; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-style: none; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 19.2px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-image: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Mohawk Industries<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline; line-height: 1em; display: inline-block; white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.25em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mohawk Industries" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">edit</a>]</h3>

<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">On April 26, 2006, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">Supreme Court</a> heard Mohawk Industries, Inc. v. Williams, 547 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/547/516/case.html" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(" data:image="data:image" svg="svg" xml="xml" base64="base64" pd94bwwgdmvyc2lvbj0ims4wiiblbmnvzgluzz0ivvrgltgiihn0yw5kywxvbmu9im5vij8="PD94bWwgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4wIiBlbmNvZGluZz0iVVRGLTgiIHN0YW5kYWxvbmU9Im5vIj8" 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"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" 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ciagicagidxwyxrociagicagicagihnvzglwb2rpom5vzgv0exblcz0iy2njy2njy2miciagicagicagiglua3njyxblomnvbm5ly3rvci1jdxj2yxr1cmu9ijaiciagicagicagiglkpsjwyxrondc3osikicagicagicagzd0ibsa4mdaunja5ndysnjk4ljawmjq0idmundy5odysmy40mzg2nsatmi41nzayldagmcw0lja3ndm2ic0xljcznjismcawlc00lja3ndm2ic0yljyxnzu0lc0zljzlltqgeiikicagicagicagc3r5bgu9imzpbgw6i2zmzmzmzjtmawxslw9wywnpdhk6mttzdhjva2u6bm9uzsiglz4kicagidwvzz4kica8l2c="CiAgICAgIDxwYXRoCiAgICAgICAgIHNvZGlwb2RpOm5vZGV0eXBlcz0iY2NjY2NjY2MiCiAgICAgICAgIGlua3NjYXBlOmNvbm5lY3Rvci1jdXJ2YXR1cmU9IjAiCiAgICAgICAgIGlkPSJwYXRoNDc3OSIKICAgICAgICAgZD0ibSA4MDAuNjA5NDYsNjk4LjAwMjQ0IDMuNDY5ODYsMy40Mzg2NSAtMi41NzAyLDAgMCw0LjA3NDM2IC0xLjczNjIsMCAwLC00LjA3NDM2IC0yLjYxNzU0LC0zLjZlLTQgeiIKICAgICAgICAgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I2ZmZmZmZjtmaWxsLW9wYWNpdHk6MTtzdHJva2U6bm9uZSIgLz4KICAgIDwvZz4KICA8L2c" cjwvc3znpgo="); padding-right: 13px; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat;" xmlns:data="data">516</a> (2006), which concerned what sort of corporations fell under the scope of RICO. Mohawk Industries had allegedly hired <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_aliens" title="Illegal aliens" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none;">illegal aliens</a>, in violation of RICO. The court was asked to decide whether Mohawk Industries, along with recruiting agencies, constitutes an 'enterprise' that can be prosecuted under RICO, but in June of that year dismissed the case and remanded it to Court of Appeals.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act#cite_note-19" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a><p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Letter to President Obama, Attorney General Lynch, and OSTP Director Holdren<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">
<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">September 1, 2015 (before exxon busted?!)<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">
<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Dear President Obama, Attorney General Lynch, and OSTP Director Holdren,<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"> As you know, an overwhelming majority of climate scientists are convinced about the potentially

serious adverse effects of human-induced climate change on human health, agriculture, and

biodiversity. We applaud your efforts to regulate emissions and the other steps you are taking.

Nonetheless, as climate scientists we are exceedingly concerned that America’s response to

climate change – indeed, the world’s response to climate change – is insufficient. The risks

posed by climate change, including increasing extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and

increasing ocean acidity – and potential strategies for addressing them – are detailed in the Third

National Climate Assessment (2014), Climate Change Impacts in the United States. <p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The stability

of the Earth’s climate over the past ten thousand years contributed to the growth of agriculture

and therefore, a thriving human civilization. We are now at high risk of seriously destabilizing

the Earth’s climate and irreparably harming people around the world, especially the world’s

poorest people.

We appreciate that you are making aggressive and imaginative use of the limited tools available

to you in the face of a recalcitrant Congress. One additional tool – recently proposed by Senator

Sheldon Whitehouse – is a RICO (Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act)

investigation of corporations and other organizations that have knowingly deceived the

American people about the risks of climate change, as a means to forestall America’s response to

climate change. The actions of these organizations have been extensively documented in peerreviewed

academic research (Brulle, 2013) and in recent books including: Doubt is their Product

(Michaels, 2008), Climate Cover-Up (Hoggan & Littlemore, 2009), Merchants of Doubt

(Oreskes & Conway, 2010), The Climate War (Pooley, 2010), and in The Climate Deception

Dossiers (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2015). <p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px;">We strongly endorse Senator Whitehouse’s call

for a RICO investigation.

The methods of these organizations are quite similar to those used earlier by the tobacco industry.

A RICO investigation (1999 to 2006) played an important role in stopping the tobacco industry

from continuing to deceive the American people about the dangers of smoking. If corporations in

the fossil fuel industry and their supporters are guilty of the misdeeds that have been documented

in books and journal articles, it is imperative that these misdeeds be stopped as soon as possible

so that America and the world can get on with the critically important business of finding

effective ways to restabilize the Earth’s climate, before even more lasting damage is done.

Sincerely,

Jagadish Shukla, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

Edward Maibach, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

Paul Dirmeyer, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

Barry Klinger, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

Paul Schopf, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

(continued on page 2) 

<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Letter to President Obama, Attorney General Lynch, and OSTP Director Holdren<p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px;"> David Straus, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

Edward Sarachik, University of Washington, Seattle, WA

Michael Wallace, University of Washington, Seattle, WA

Alan Robock, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ

Eugenia Kalnay, University of Maryland, College Park, MD

William Lau, University of Maryland, College Park, MD

Kevin Trenberth, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO

T.N. Krishnamurti, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL

Vasu Misra, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL

Ben Kirtman, University of Miami, Miami, FL

Robert Dickinson, University of Texas, Austin, TX

Michela Biasutti, Earth Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY

Mark Cane, Columbia University, New York, NY

Lisa Goddard, Earth Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY

Alan Betts, Atmospheric Research, Pittsford, VT<div></div><div><h1 class="title" style="margin-bottom: 0px; letter-spacing: -1px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Climate Scientist Faces Backlash for Urging Investigation of Fossil Fuel Companies</h1><div class="region region-content"><div id="block-system-main" class="block block-system "><div class="content"><div id="node-41338" class="node node-type-article clear-block" style="margin: 1em 0px 2em;"><div class="meta" style="padding-bottom: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; background-image: url(http://insideclimatenews.org/sites/all/themes/solve/images/dot-bottom.png); background-position: 0% 100%; background-repeat: repeat-x;"><h3 style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Jagadish Shukla will be questioned by a Congressional committee after he and other scientists called for a racketeering probe of deliberate climate denial.</h3><div style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">http://web.archive.org/web/20150920110942/http:/www.iges.org/letter/LetterPresidentAG.pdf</div><div style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">
</div><div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"> climate scientist who was the lead signatory on a letter urging President Obama to launch a federal investigation into whether fossil fuel companies "knowingly deceived the American people about the risks of climate change" is now facing an investigation by Congress because of his part in the letter.Jagadish Shukla, a climate scientist at George Mason University in Virginia, received <a href="https://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/10-1-15%20CLS%20to%20Shukla.pdf" style="text-decoration: none; outline: none;">notice Oct. 1</a> that the non-profit research organization he runs, the Institute of Global Environment and Society (IGES), will soon be investigated by the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology for suspected misuse of federal funding.Republican Rep. Lamar Smith of Texas, who chairs the House committee, requested that Shukla and IGES "preserve all e-mail, electronic documents, and data (‘electronic records’) created since January 1, 2009," according to the notice.The investigation stems from Shukla's involvement in the <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20150920110942/http:/www.iges.org/letter/LetterPresidentAG.pdf" style="text-decoration: none; outline: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">letter to President Obama</a>, Attorney General Loretta Lynch and White House science advisor John Holdren on Sept. 1. The letter's 20 signees—climate scientists from Columbia University, the National Center for Atmospheric Research, the University of Maryland and other institutions—asked the administration to explore whether energy companies could be prosecuted under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) of 1970 for purposefully casting doubt on the scientific evidence for climate change. Federal prosecutors used the RICO Act in the 1990s and 2000s to sue tobacco companies for covering up the health impacts of smoking. <a href="http://news.sciencemag.org/policy/2015/10/turnabout-house-republicans-say-they-ll-investigate-climate-scientist-requesting" style="text-decoration: none; outline: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ScienceInsider</a> first reported Smith's investigation.Shukla's research organization, IGES, posted a copy of the RICO letter to its website—a move that Smith told Shukla "raises serious concerns" over a taxpayer-funded scientific group "participating in partisan political activity." The research center has received funds from the National Science Foundation, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and NASA."Promoting a lobbying effort and publicizing that effort on a website is not an appropriate use of federal research funds," an aide for the House Science, Space and Technology Committee told InsideClimate News."Additional questions have been raised regarding the fiscal management of federal grant dollars received by IGES and the transfer of IGES to George Mason University," the aide said. The committee will be looking into the salaries of Shukla and his wife Anastasia, who works as the organization's business manager."I signed this letter as a private citizen on personal time, urging action on climate change, and I have been shocked by the reaction," Shukla told InsideClimate News. "Any allegations of inappropriate behavior are untrue."IGES said the letter was posted on its website inadvertently. It has since been removed."IGES's recent decision to remove documents from its website raises concerns that additional information vital to the Committee's investigation may not be preserved," Smith wrote. Smith informed Shukla he and his colleagues had until Oct. 8 to inform the House Committee on how IGES would comply with the request."The House Science Committee isn’t going after Dr. Shukla and his colleagues for their scientific work, but for their opinions as private citizens," said Michael Halpern, program manager of the Center for Science and Democracy at the Union of Concerned Scientists. "Scientists have the same right as anyone to engage in the political process and express their beliefs without fear of being hauled before Congress for their views." <h3 dir="ltr" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">A History of Inquiries</h3>Smith's investigation is just the latest in a long line of probes into climate scientists by conservative politicians. In 2005, Republican Rep. Joe Barton of Texas, who was then Chair of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce, examined the work of climate scientists Michael Mann of Penn State and Ray Bradley of the University of Massachusetts. Over the last decade, the scientific community has had to field an increasing number of public records requests from conservative groups looking to cast doubt on their research."Overall, scientists whose work is policy relevant are certainly under more scrutiny than ever before through a variety of means, from subpoenas to open records requests, and need to be prepared to respond to that scrutiny," said Halpern. Such investigations, he said, "can send the wrong message to researchers about how valuable their expertise is to society. We need scientists to engage in public conversations on science-based issues, no matter how contentious the topic." The biggest difference between Smith's investigation today and the one Mann and Bradley faced in 2005, Mann said, is that "back then, there were a number of moderate pro-science, pro-environment Republicans who came to my defense. Chief among them was Sherwood Boehlert—an old-school Republican from upstate New York.""Unfortunately, we no longer have moderate republicans like Boehlert chairing the House science committee," said Mann.Shukla and his colleagues' letter was sent three weeks before an eight-month investigation by InsideClimate News showed that ExxonMobil's own research confirmed fossil fuels' role in climate change in the 1970s and 1980s. The company then spent the next two decades funding a campaign to derail climate regulations and question climate science."If corporations in the fossil fuel industry and their supporters are guilty of the misdeeds that have been documented in books and journal articles, it is imperative that these misdeeds be stopped as soon as possible," Shulka and the other climate scientists wrote in the letter.Holdren wrote back to the researchers that "the [Obama] administration shares the concern expressed in the letter about the seriousness of the threat posed by climate change," according to ScienceInsider.ScienceInsider also reported that Shulka is not the only signatory of the letter facing backlash. Attorney Christopher Horner, a senior fellow at the Competitive Enterprise Institute, a Washington, D.C.-based libertarian think tank, filed a public records request with several of the signatories' universities for emails contained the words "RICO, racketeer, racketeering, DOJ, prosecute or prosecution.""If they believe this is part of their job, we will not dispute that, but instead would like to see how the institutions were used in this innovative application of public education resources," Horner told ScienceInsider.</div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em; line-height: 19.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">===

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