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Robert Boyle FRS[5] (/bɔɪl/; 25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was an Anglo-Irish6[natural philosopher]^ , chemist, physicist, alchemist and inventor. Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. He is best known for Boyle's law,[7] which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.[8] Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. He was a devout and pious Anglican and is noted for his writings in theology.[9][10]

Biography

Early years

Boyle was born at Lismore Castle, in County Waterford, Ireland, the seventh son and fourteenth child of The 1st Earl of Cork ('the Great Earl of Cork') and Catherine Fenton.[11] Lord Cork, then known simply as Richard Boyle, had arrived in Dublin from England in 1588 during the Tudor plantations of Ireland and obtained an appointment as a deputy escheator. He had amassed enormous wealth and landholdings by the time Robert was born, and had been created Earl of Cork in October 1620. Catherine Fenton, Countess of Cork, was the daughter of Sir Geoffrey Fenton, the former Secretary of State for Ireland, who was born in Dublin in 1539, and Alice Weston, the daughter of Robert Weston, who was born in Lismore in 1541.[12]

As a child, Boyle was raised by a wet nurse,[13] as were his elder brothers. Boyle received private tutoring in Latin, Greek, and French and when he was eight years old, following the death of his mother, he, and his brother Francis, were sent to Eton College in England. His father's friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then the provost of the college.[11]

During this time, his father hired a private tutor, Robert Carew, who had knowledge of Irish, to act as private tutor to his sons in Eton. However, "only Mr. Robert sometimes desires it [Irish] and is a little entered in it", but despite the "many reasons" given by Carew to turn their attentions to it, "they practice the French and Latin but they affect not the Irish".[14] After spending over three years at Eton, Robert travelled abroad with a French tutor. They visited Italy in 1641 and remained in Florence during the winter of that year studying the "paradoxes of the great star-gazer", the elderly Galileo Galilei.[11]

Middle years

Emblematic image of a Rosicrucian College; illustration from Speculum sophicum Rhodo-stauroticum, a 1618 work by Theophilus Schweighardt. Frances Yates identifies this as the "Invisible College of the Rosy Cross. Robert Boyle was a member of this association.

Robert returned to England from continental Europe in mid-1644 with a keen interest in scientific research.[15] His father, Lord Cork, had died the previous year and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorset as well as substantial estates in County Limerick in Ireland that he had acquired. Robert then made his residence at Stalbridge House, between 1644 and 1652, and settled a laboratory where he conducted many experiments.[16] From that time, Robert devoted his life to scientific research and soon took a prominent place in the band of enquirers, known as the "Invisible College", who devoted themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy".

They met frequently in London, often at Gresham College, and some of the members also had meetings at Oxford.[11] Having made several visits to his Irish estates beginning in 1647, Robert moved to Ireland in 1652 but became frustrated at his inability to make progress in his chemical work. In one letter, he described Ireland as "a barbarous country where chemical spirits were so misunderstood and chemical instruments so unprocurable that it was hard to have any Hermetic thoughts in it."[17]

All Souls, Oxford University shows the arms the arms of Boyle's family in colonnade of the Great Quadrangle, opposite the arms of the Hill family of Shropshire, close by a sundial designed by Boyle's friend Christopher Wren.[18]

In 1654, Boyle left Ireland for Oxford to pursue his work more successfully. An inscription can be found on the wall of University College, Oxford, the High Street at Oxford (now the location of the Shelley Memorial), marking the spot where Cross Hall stood until the early 19th century. It was here that Boyle rented rooms from the wealthy apothecary who owned the Hall.

Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air pump, he set himself, with the assistance of Robert Hooke, to devise improvements in its construction. Guericke's air pump was large and required "the continual labour of two strong men for divers hours", and Boyle constructed one that could be operated conveniently on a desktop.[19] With the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "Pneumatical Engine", finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of air and coined the term factitious airs.[7][11] An account of Boyle's work with the air pump was published in 1660 under the title New Experiments Physico-Mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects.[11]

Among the critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Francis Line (1595–1675), and it was while answering his objections that Boyle made his first mention of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely to the pressure of the gas, which among English-speaking people is usually called Boyle's Law after his name.[11] The person who originally formulated the hypothesis was Henry Power in 1661. Boyle in 1662 included a reference to a paper written by Power, but mistakenly attributed it to Richard Towneley. In continental Europe the hypothesis is sometimes attributed to Edme Mariotte, although he did not publish it until 1676 and was likely aware of Boyle's work at the time.[20]

In 1663 the Invisible College became The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II of England named Boyle a member of the council. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about oaths.[11]

He made a "wish list" of 24 possible inventions which included "the prolongation of life", the "art of flying", "perpetual light", "making armour light and extremely hard", "a ship to sail with all winds, and a ship not to be sunk", "practicable and certain way of finding longitudes", "potent drugs to alter or exalt imagination, waking, memory and other functions and appease pain, procure innocent sleep, harmless dreams, etc.". All but a few of the 24 have come true.[21][22]

External audio
“The Almost Forgotten Story of Katherine Jones, Lady Ranelagh”, Distillations Podcast, Science History Institute

In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided at the house of his elder sister Katherine Jones, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall.[11] He experimented in the laboratory she had in her home and attended her salon of intellectuals interested in the sciences. The siblings maintained "a lifelong intellectual partnership, where brother and sister shared medical remedies, promoted each other's scientific ideas, and edited each other's manuscripts."[23] His contemporaries widely acknowledged Katherine's influence on his work, but later historiographers dropped discussion of her accomplishments and relationship to her brother from their histories.

Later years

In 1669 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously and he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing his communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his desire to be excused from receiving guests, "unless upon occasions very extraordinary", on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained he wished to "recruit his spirits, range his papers", and prepare some important chemical investigations which he proposed to leave "as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the studious disciples of that art", but of which he did not make known the nature.

His health became still worse in 1691,[11] and he died on 31 December that year,[24] just a week after the death of his sister, Katherine, in whose home he had lived and with whom he had shared scientific pursuits for more than twenty years. Boyle died from paralysis. He was buried in the churchyard of St Martin-in-the-Fields, his funeral sermon being preached by his friend, Bishop Gilbert Burnet.[11] In his will, Boyle endowed a series of lectures that came to be known as the Boyle Lectures.

Scientific investigator

Boyle's air pump. It illustrates: a 28.4-litre glass "receiver" (A) connected by a stopcock (S, N) to a 36-cm-long brass pumping cylinder, through which a padded piston (4) could be cranked by a toothed shaft with handle (5, 6, 7). To operate the air pump, first the stopcock was closed, and the piston was cranked down. Then, with the stopcock opened, part of the air in the receiver moves into the cylinder. Then the stopcock was closed, the brass plug (R) removed, and the piston raised, expelling air from the cylinder. As the procedure was repeated, the air pressure in the receiver decreased.[25]

Boyle's great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried out the principles which Francis Bacon espoused in the Novum Organum. Yet he would not avow himself a follower of Bacon, or indeed of any other teacher.[11]

On several occasions he mentions that to keep his judgment as unprepossessed as might be with any of the modern theories of philosophy, until he was "provided of experiments" to help him judge of them. He refrained from any study of the atomical and the Cartesian systems, and even of the Novum Organum itself, though he admits to "transiently consulting" them about a few particulars. Nothing was more alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses. He regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself, and in consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of scientific inquiry than had been enjoyed by his predecessors for many centuries. This, however, did not mean that he paid no attention to the practical application of science nor that he despised knowledge which tended to use.[11]

Robert Boyle was an alchemist;[26] and believing the transmutation of metals to be a possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of achieving it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689, of the statute of Henry IV against multiplying gold and silver.[27][11]

With all the important work he accomplished in physics – the enunciation of Boyle's law, the discovery of the part taken by air in the propagation of sound, and investigations on the expansive force of freezing water, on specific gravities and refractive powers, on crystals, on electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics, etc. – chemistry was his peculiar and favourite study. His first book on the subject was The Sceptical Chymist, published in 1661, in which he criticised the "experiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt, Sulphur and Mercury to be the true Principles of Things." For him chemistry was the science of the composition of substances, not merely an adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician.[11]

He endorsed the view of elements as the undecomposable constituents of material bodies; and made the distinction between mixtures and compounds. He made considerable progress in the technique of detecting their ingredients, a process which he designated by the term "analysis". He further supposed that the elements were ultimately composed of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however, they were not to be resolved in any known way. He studied the chemistry of combustion and of respiration, and conducted experiments in physiology, where, however, he was hampered by the "tenderness of his nature" which kept him from anatomical dissections, especially vivisections, though he knew them to be "most instructing".[11]

Theological interests

In addition to philosophy, Boyle devoted much time to theology, showing a very decided leaning to the practical side and an indifference to controversial polemics. At the Restoration of the king in 1660, he was favourably received at court and in 1665 would have received the provostship of Eton College had he agreed to take holy orders, but this he refused to do on the ground that his writings on religious subjects would have greater weight coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church.[11]

Moreover, Boyle incorporated his scientific interests into his theology, believing that natural philosophy could provide powerful evidence for the existence of God. In works such as Disquisition about the Final Causes of Natural Things (1688), for instance, he criticised contemporary philosophers – such as René Descartes – who denied that the study of nature could reveal much about God. Instead, Boyle argued that natural philosophers could use the design apparently on display in some parts of nature to demonstrate God's involvement with the world.

He also attempted to tackle complex theological questions using methods derived from his scientific practices. In Some Physico-Theological Considerations about the Possibility of the Resurrection (1675), he used a chemical experiment known as the reduction to the pristine state as part of an attempt to demonstrate the physical possibility of the resurrection of the body. Throughout his career, Boyle tried to show that science could lend support to Christianity.[28]

As a director of the East India Company[29] he spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity in the East, contributing liberally to missionary societies and to the expenses of translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages.[11] Boyle supported the policy that the Bible should be available in the vernacular language of the people.

An Irish language version of the New Testament was published in 1602 but was rare in Boyle's adult life. In 1680–85 Boyle personally financed the printing of the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, in Irish.[30] In this respect, Boyle's attitude to the Irish language differed from the Protestant Ascendancy class in Ireland at the time, which was generally hostile to the language and largely opposed the use of Irish (not only as a language of religious worship).[31]

Boyle also had a monogenist perspective about race origin. He was a pioneer studying races, and he believed that all human beings, no matter how diverse their physical differences, came from the same source: Adam and Eve. He studied reported stories of parents' giving birth to different coloured albinos, so he concluded that Adam and Eve were originally white and that Caucasians could give birth to different coloured races. Boyle also extended the theories of Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton about colour and light via optical projection (in physics) into discourses of polygenesis,[32] speculating that maybe these differences were due to "seminal impressions".

Taking this into account, it might be considered that he envisioned a good explanation for complexion at his time, due to the fact that now we know that skin colour is disposed by genes, which are actually contained in the semen. Boyle's writings mention that at his time, for "European Eyes", beauty was not measured so much in colour of skin, but in "stature, comely symmetry of the parts of the body, and good features in the face".[33] Various members of the scientific community rejected his views and described them as "disturbing" or "amusing".[34]

In his will, Boyle provided money for a series of lectures to defend the Christian religion against those he considered "notorious infidels, namely atheists, deists, pagans, Jews and Muslims", with the provision that controversies between Christians were not to be mentioned (see Boyle Lectures).[35][11]

Awards and honours

Statue of Boyle in Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland

As a founder of the Royal Society, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1663.[5] Boyle's law is named in his honour. The Royal Society of Chemistry issues a Robert Boyle Prize for Analytical Science, named in his honour. The Boyle Medal for Scientific Excellence in Ireland, inaugurated in 1899, is awarded jointly by the Royal Dublin Society and The Irish Times.[36] Launched in 2012, The Robert Boyle Summer School organized by the Waterford Institute of Technology with support from Lismore Castle, is held annually to honor the heritage of Robert Boyle.[37]

Important works

Boyle's self-flowing flask, a perpetual motion machine, appears to fill itself through siphon action ("hydrostatic perpetual motion") and involves the "hydrostatic paradox"[38] This is not possible in reality; a siphon requires its "output" to be lower than the "input".

Title page of "New Experiments and Observations upon Cold" (1665)

The following are some of the more important of his works:[11]

Among his religious and philosophical writings were:

See also
References...
Knowledge Web Content (see main node)

Robert Boyle

Achievements: An early user of the scientific method and a founder of modern chemistry.

Born: 25th January 25, 1627; Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland.

Died: 30th December 30, 1691; London, England (Aged 64)

Field & Discipline: Science; Chemistry; Physics

Language: English

Father: Richard Boyle, first Earl of Cork (d. 1643)

Mother: Katherine Fenton (d. 1630).

Siblings: Thirteen older siblings, most notably Katherine, Lady Ranelagh

(1614-91); Margaret

Spouse: None

Children: None

Education: Eton College (1635-38)

Major Work:

“New Experiments Physio-Mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects” (1660)

Life & Times:

In 1639, Robert Boyle went on a tour of Europe with Francis, his older brother, and a private tutor.  They spent 21 months in Geneva, where Boyle studied French, mathematics and the polite arts, which included dancing and fencing.  While he was in Geneva, he became greatly influenced by the Calvinist movement.

From Switzerland, he moved to Florence in 1641, where, over a year, he mastered Italian and was introduced to the new science, reading “Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems” by [studied work of] Galileo*, who died during his stay there in early 1642.

Boyle went back to Geneva, then home to Ireland in 1644 and, although he had inherited the impoverished manor of Stalbridge in Dorset, England, chose instead to stay for a

year in London with his favourite sister, the brilliant Katherine, Lady Ranelagh.

She was a strong Parliamentarian and a friend of [a pal of] Milton*, who introduced him to, among others, the educationalist  [a pal of] Hartlib*, who became a lifelong friend. 

In 1645,  Boyle moved to his Dorset estate, where he began experimental work. Having developed a fascination for chemistry and alchemy, Boyle read all the available works on the subjects and built himself a private laboratory.

He occasionally went to London, where, through his sister, he met  [a pal of] Wilkins* and  [a pal of] Petty* and attended a few of the early informal meetings which would, fifteen years later, become the [founder member of] Royal Society*.

Between 1652 and 1653, Boyle spent time in Ireland sorting out the family estates. While he was there, he renewed his acquaintance with Sir William Petty, who taught him about

anatomy, physiology and the experimental technique.

When Boyle went back to England, he was invited by Wilkins, now Warden of Wadham College, to join him in Oxford, where most of the leaders of the English scientific movement were living.

In 1654, Boyle moved into lodgings in the city, bringing with him his own chemist, a Mr Staehl from Strasbourg, as a technical tutor. The following year, Boyle published his first work, a collection of moral essays called “Occasional Reflections upon Several Subjects,” one of which, “Upon the Eating of Oysters,” is thought to have inspired [inspired] Swift* to write “Gulliver's Travels” in 1726.

From 1654 until 1668, Boyle, who set up what became a famous laboratory, took on [was assisted by] Hooke* as his assistant, and mixed with many important intellectuals, including Wilkins, [a pal of] Wallis*, [a pal of] Wren*, [a pal of] Sprat*, and the students [a pal of] Sydenham* and [a pal of] Locke*.

In 1657, Boyle heard about [inspired by] Guericke*'s invention of an air pump and, recognizing straight away its scientific possibilities, he set his assistants the job of designing an improved version.  Hooke, an inventor himself and later to become Curator of Experiments at the Royal Society, produced the perfect design.

Together, he and Boyle built the pump that would allow Boyle to conduct a brilliant

series of experiments on the physical nature of air, in which he proved, following [inspired by] Torricelli*'s work on the vacuum ten years before, that air was necessary for combustion and respiration.

Then, following the experiments of [improved on work by] Mersenne*, Boyle proved that air was essential for the transmission of sound and that air was elastic.  Boyle described these experiments in 1660, in his first published scientific work, “New Experiments Physio-Mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects.” 

In the second edition two years later, he added what became known as “Boyle's Law,” stating that if the temperature and quantity of a gas remain constant, the volume varies inversely with the pressure.

Fourteen years later, this law was independently stated by [work related to] Mariotte*, and became known in France as “Mariotte's Law.” Right through his life, Boyle continued experimenting with the air pump, among other things showing that fruits and vegetables contained air (in fact carbon dioxide) that they gave off during fermentation. 

In his two publications of 1661, “Certain Physiological Essays” and “The Sceptical Chymist,” Boyle's first aim was to disprove the old theory of the “four elements”: earth, air, fire, and water, as well as the “three principles”: salt, sulphur, and mercury, and to put a mechanical theory of matter in their place.

Boyle's other objective was to show that the best way to demonstrate the mechanical view was by the use of careful and methodical experimentation, and in 1662 and 1663 he was involved a long argument with the philosopher [argued with] Spinoza* on the question of whether experiment would provide proof.

According to Spinoza,  as a follower of Descartes, only logical thought could provide the conviction necessary for proof, while experiment could only confirm or maybe deny.  To Boyle, experiment was an essential ingredient of proof.

With little support at first, Boyle's views gradually gained ground and greatly influenced the development of the experimental method in the late 17th century by [influenced] Newton*,  one of John Locke’s most faithful followers.

During the 1660s, Boyle carried out investigation into physic as well, including the gas laws, the expansion of water on freezing, hydrostatic pressure, specific gravity, the refractive index, color and electricity.

In the first few years of the decade, he published three works showing the results of his studies, “Experiments and Considerations Touching Colors,” in 1664, “New Experiments and Observations Touching Cold” in 1665 and “Hydrostatic Paradoxes” a year later.

He became a founder member of the Royal Society in 1660, wrote treatises on natural theology in the manner of his friends Wilkins,  [a pal of]  Tillotson* and [a pal of] Barrow* and continued to study Christianity, learning Hebrew, Greek, Chaldean and Syriac.

In 1668, because of ill health, Boyle finally left Oxford for London, where he became friendly with the diarist [a pal of] Evelyn* and carried on experimenting.  He was also a member of the [member of] East India Company* and a governor of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.

Boyle became famous in his own lifetime and was visited by many foreigners of distinction, including the physicist [worked with] Papin*, with whom he worked during the late 1670s.  In 1680, he was asked to become President of the Royal Society, but refused the job because.  He retired from the Royal Society in 1689.

Extra Connections:  Knew the poet [knew] Dryden*. 

His work related to that of [work related to] Gassendi*

He knew [knew] Oldenburg*, [knew] Sloane* and [knew] Winthrop*

Was influenced by [influenced by] William Gilbert*

[influenced work of] Haukesbee* repeated his experiments

[gave demo to] Christiaan Huyghens* saw his vacuum experiments

He used the [used] camera obscura*

He knew the work of fellow-member of the Royal Society [knew work of] Leeuwenhoek*

He was an early exponent of the [exponent of theory of] miasma* theory

He met [met] Leibniz*

Saw instrument from the [knew of] Accademia del Cimento*

He admired the work of [a fan of] Oughtred*

Assessment: Boyle is considered one of the founders of the modern scientific method, because of his belief in the necessity of objective observation and experimentation in scientific studies, and his devotion to verifiable

laboratory experiments.

Oneliner: Robert Boyle, experimenter and founder-member of Royal Society

Bibliography: